Jazz

History and character

Jazz is the music born in the African American communities of New Orleans between the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries from the meeting of blues, ragtime, spirituals, brass band marches, and Caribbean and Latin music (Jelly Roll Morton's “Spanish tinge”). The first recordings date from 1917 (Original Dixieland Jass Band); in the 1920s Louis Armstrong (Hot Five and Hot Seven, “West End Blues,” 1928) turns jazz into an art of improvising soloists, while stride piano and the first orchestras (Fletcher Henderson, Duke Ellington) develop in Chicago and New York.

The evolution is extremely rapid: swing and big bands (1935–1946, Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Duke Ellington), bebop (1940s, Charlie Parker, Dizzy Gillespie, Thelonious Monk, Bud Powell), cool jazz and West Coast (Miles Davis “Birth of the Cool,” Gerry Mulligan, Chet Baker, Dave Brubeck), hard bop (Art Blakey, Horace Silver, Clifford Brown), modal jazz (Kind of Blue, 1959; Coltrane's quartet), free jazz (Ornette Coleman, Cecil Taylor, Albert Ayler), soul jazz (Jimmy Smith, Cannonball Adderley), Latin jazz and bossa nova, fusion (Miles Davis “Bitches Brew,” Weather Report, Herbie Hancock), smooth jazz, then neo-traditionalism (Wynton Marsalis), European nu jazz and the contemporary scene (Robert Glasper, Kamasi Washington, Esperanza Spalding, Snarky Puppy, the London scene, Laufey and jazz pop).

Constant elements: improvisation over a form (the “chorus”), swing (the triplet-based rhythmic phrasing and the interaction of the rhythm section), harmony built on seventh chords and extensions, the ii–V–I, the repertoire of standards (Broadway and Tin Pan Alley songs: Gershwin, Porter, Kern, Rodgers) and blues, the dialogue between soloist and accompaniment (comping), and each player's personal sound. Jazz is the foundation of much of the harmony of pop, soul, R&B, hip hop and film scores.

Scales and keys

How to think about a scale in jazz

In jazz the scale is tied to the chord (chord-scale): for each chord you choose a scale that contains its notes and tells you which tensions are available (9, 11, 13) and which notes to avoid. The formulas below are in scale degrees relative to the major scale, with T = tone and S = semitone.

Modes of the major scale over the ii–V–I

• Dorian (ii7) — 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — T S T T T S T. On D: D E F G A B C. Characteristic note: major 6 (B). Chord: Dm7, Dm9, Dm11.
• Mixolydian (V7) — 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 — T T S T T S T. On G: G A B C D E F. Note to avoid: the 4 (C) held long. Chord: G7, G9, G13.
• Ionian (Imaj7) — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. On C: C D E F G A B. Note to avoid: the 4 (F) over Cmaj7.
• Lydian (Imaj7#11, IVmaj7) — 1 2 3 #4 5 6 7 — T T T S T T S. On C: C D E F# G A B. Characteristic note: #4 (F#): the maj7 with no “avoid” notes, a modern, open sound.
• Locrian (iiø7 in minor) — 1 b2 b3 4 b5 b6 b7. On B: B C D E F G A.

The bebop scales (eight notes)

David Baker named them “bebop scales”: they have eight notes, so when you play eighth notes starting from a chord tone on the downbeat, the chord tones stay on the strong beats.

• Bebop dominant — 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 7. On G: G A B C D E F F#. The major 7 (F#) is a passing tone between b7 and the root. Use: over G7, descending.
• Bebop major — 1 2 3 4 5 #5 6 7. On C: C D E F G G# A B. The #5 (G#) is a passing tone. Barry Harris links it to the “sixth diminished” chord (C6 and Bdim7 alternating).
• Bebop Dorian (bebop minor) — 1 2 b3 3 4 5 6 b7. On D: D E F F# G A B C. These are the same notes as the G bebop dominant: you think of the ii–V as a single scale.
• Bebop melodic minor — 1 2 b3 4 5 #5 6 7. On C: C D Eb F G G# A B.

The modes of the melodic minor (“jazz” minor, ascending)

C melodic minor: C D Eb F G A B — formula 1 2 b3 4 5 6 7, T S T T T T S.

• Lydian dominant: the #11 over a dominant chord (F7#11); used over bII7 (tritone substitution) and over non-resolving IV7. Example: “Take the A Train” (D7#11 in bar 3).
• Altered: the V7 with all the tensions altered before resolving (G7alt → Cmaj7). Think of it as the melodic minor a semitone above the root (G altered = Ab melodic minor: G Ab Bb B Db Eb F).
• Locrian #2 over the iiø7 of the minor ii–V.

Diminished and whole-tone

• Half-step/whole-step diminished (dominant) — 1 b9 #9 3 #11 5 13 b7. On G: G Ab Bb B C# D E F. Chord: G7b9 with natural 13 (G13b9).
• Whole-step/half-step diminished — over dim7 chords: Bdim7 = B C# D E F G Ab A.
• Whole-tone — six whole tones. On G: G A B C# D# F. Chord: G7#5 (G9#5). Monk and Wayne Shorter use it as a color.

Blues and pentatonics

• Blues scale — 1 b3 4 b5 5 b7. On F: F Ab Bb B C Eb. Over the three chords of the blues and for “blue notes.”
• Minor pentatonic on every degree (starting from the 2, 3 or 6 of a chord) for modern “quartal” sounds (McCoy Tyner, Herbie Hancock).

Common mistakes

Playing “scales up and down” instead of phrases; not distinguishing chord tones (on the strong beats) from passing tones; holding the 4 over a dominant or major chord; ignoring the leading of the third and seventh between two chords (guide tones).

How to choose

Harmony

The ii–V–I and its variants

The basic cell: ii7–V7–Imaj7 in major (Dm7–G7–Cmaj7) and iiø7–V7b9–i in minor (Dø7–G7b9–Cm6). Standards are chains of ii–Vs that tonicize several keys; recognizing them at a glance is the first step in improvising.

Secondary dominants and substitutions

• Secondary dominants: A7 → Dm7 (V7/ii), E7 → Am7 (V7/vi).
• Tritone substitution: Db7 in place of G7 (same tritone B–F), chromatic bass Dm7–Db7–Cmaj7.
• Backdoor: iv7–bVII7–I (Fm7–Bb7–Cmaj7).
• Coltrane changes: cycles by major thirds (Giant Steps, 1960).
• Modal interchange: minor iv, bVImaj7, bVII7 in major.

Forms

• 32-bar AABA (Broadway standards).
• 12-bar blues in its jazz version (with ii–Vs toward the IV and turnarounds).
• Rhythm changes (I Got Rhythm: AABA in Bb with a bridge of dominants by fifths).
• 32-bar ABAC (All of Me, Autumn Leaves in some versions).
• Modal forms and vamps (So What), free forms.

Voicing

• Shell voicings (1–3–7 / 1–7–3): the skeleton.
• Rootless (Bill Evans, Wynton Kelly): A and B voicings with no root (e.g. Dm9 = F A C E; G13 = F A B E).
• Drop 2 for guitar and horn sections.
• Quartal (So What chord: E A D G B over Dm).
• Upper structure (triad above the tritone: D/C7 for C13#11).

Harmonic rhythm

From very fast (2 chords per bar in bebop) to very slow (one chord for 16 bars in modal jazz). Comping (accompaniment) is syncopated, never on fixed quarter notes.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Swing

The typical feel is swing: eighth notes are played “long-short” with a ratio that depends on the tempo (close to the 2:1 triplet at medium tempos, more even 1.2–1.5:1 at fast tempos, more pronounced in ballads). Accents fall on the upbeats and on 2 and 4 (the hi-hat with the foot). The time is “on top” or “laid back” depending on the style and the player.

The rhythm section as conversation

• Ride and hi-hat keep the pulse.
• Walking bass in quarter notes defines harmony and tempo.
• Comping by piano/guitar in syncopated figures.
• Drums that comment (bombs, snare comping).

Other feels

Two-beat (1920s and Dixieland), shuffle (soul jazz, blues), Latin (Afro-Cuban, bossa, samba), jazz waltz in 3/4, even eighths (in modal and modern jazz), straight 16ths (fusion), odd meters (Brubeck's “Take Five” in 5/4).

Microtiming

The soloist often plays “behind” the ride (laid back), the double bass “on top” or in the middle. The phrasing of eighth notes with accents on the upbeats and ghost notes is part of the articulation.

Drums

Role in the rhythm section

In jazz the drums are an interactive accompaniment instrument: they keep time (ride and hi-hat), support the form (end-of-chorus cues, fills between sections) and converse with the soloist (snare and kick comping).

Ride

• “Spang-a-lang” pattern: 1, 2 (+ third triplet of 2), 3, 4 (+ third triplet of 4). On a triplet grid: 1, 2, 2-a, 3, 4, 4-a.
• The ride is the center of the sound: long, with a clear “ping” and a bed of overtones.

Hi-hat (with the foot)

On 2 and 4, closed and dry (“chick”); in ballads with brushes it can play on all quarter notes or drop out.

Kick

From swing on: feathering (very light quarter notes, almost imperceptible) or sporadic accents (“bombs”) to underline the horns. Never a fixed rock pattern.

Snare

Comping: scattered hits on the third triplets, ghost notes, responses to the soloist; brushes in ballads and medium tempos (circular sweeps in quarter notes, accents on 2 and 4).

Dynamics and velocity

Ride at medium dynamics (don't cover the double bass and piano), comping much softer than the ride, strong accents only for the “kicks” (horn accents) and fills.

Interaction with the bass and the soloist

Ride and walking bass must be perfectly in time with each other (the jazz “pocket”). The drums grow with the soloist: more comping, more kick, more cymbals in the final choruses.

Sections

Head: more restrained accompaniment; solos: crescendo by chorus; trading fours/eights (alternating 4- or 8-bar solos); fill at the end of the last chorus; return of the head; coda.

Fills

Short, on snare and toms, in triplets or swung eighth notes, to signal the end of a section or chorus (last 1–2 bars).

Sounds

Small, high-tuned kit: 18–20" kick with no port hole, tuned resonant; 14" snare with lots of snare wire; 12" and 14" toms; 20–22" dark, complex ride, crash ride, 14" hi-hat.

Typical mistakes

Rock pattern with kick on 1 and 3, ride too loud, “quantized” swing with rigid triplets on every beat, constant fills, ignoring the form.

Bass

Sound

Plucked double bass (from the 1930s) with a round sound, clear attack and long tail; electric bass in jazz-rock, soul jazz and fusion; the tuba in the early days.

Walking bass

One note per quarter: on the strong beat a chord tone (root, third or fifth), then diatonic or chromatic passing tones leading to the next chord (semitone approach). Example over Dm7–G7: D F A Ab | G B D Db | C.

Other roles

Two-beat (root and fifth on 1 and 3), pedals in modal jazz, ostinatos in Latin jazz, lines in modern jazz, solos.

Relationship with the drums

The double bass pulse and the ride must coincide; the bassist also defines the harmony for the soloist.

Examples

Walter Page, Jimmy Blanton, Ray Brown, Paul Chambers, Charles Mingus, Ron Carter, Scott LaFaro, Christian McBride; Jaco Pastorius on electric bass.

Harmonic instruments

• Piano: syncopated comping, rootless voicings, quartal voicings, block chords (George Shearing, Red Garland), stride in the early days.
• Guitar: quarter-note comping (Freddie Green), drop 2 and three-note chords, octaves (Wes Montgomery), single-note solos.
• Vibraphone: four-mallet chords, crystalline color (Milt Jackson, Gary Burton).
• Hammond organ: soul jazz (Jimmy Smith) with the bass played on the pedalboard or with the left hand.
• Rhodes and synths: in electric jazz and fusion.
• Horn sections: in big bands, 4–5-part voicings (sax soli).

Melody and vocals

Instrumental melody

Singable or “bebop” themes (heads) (lines of fast eighth notes with chromaticism); improvisation made of phrases that use chord tones, enclosures (a note above and below before the target note), chromatic approaches, developed motifs, quotations.

Voice

Jazz singing (Billie Holiday, Ella Fitzgerald, Sarah Vaughan, Frank Sinatra, Nat King Cole) interprets standards with rhythmic freedom (singing behind the beat), a personal timbre and scat (improvisation with syllables).

Interplay

Call and response between soloist and rhythm section, trading fours, counterpoint (Dixieland, cool jazz).

Effects

No effects: natural reverb or light plate/room.

Instruments

• Horns: trumpet, trombone, alto, tenor, baritone and soprano sax, clarinet, flute
• Piano, guitar, vibraphone, Hammond organ
• Double bass (electric bass in electric jazz)
• Jazz drum kit (brushes and sticks)
• Latin percussion (congas, bongos, timbales) in Latin jazz
• Voice
• Rhodes and synths in fusion

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Piano: Grand piano (Steinway or Yamaha model), close mics for modern jazz or more ambience for the trio; soft velocity.
• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: Electric jazz and soul jazz: light tremolo, a bit of drive, rootless voicings.
• B-3 V — Organ: Jimmy Smith-style soul jazz: drawbars 888000000 with percussion on the 3rd harmonic, slow/fast Leslie, key click.
• Wurli V — Wurlitzer: Soul jazz and jazz pop color.
• Mini V — Lead and bass: 1970s electric jazz (Herbie Hancock, Chick Corea): lead with glide and filter.
• ARP 2600 V — Experimental synth: Fusion and Weather Report (Joe Zawinul used the ARP 2600).

Song structure

“Head–solos–head” form

• Intro (4–8): solo piano, vamp or the last 4 bars of the form.
• Head: one chorus of the form (32-bar AABA or 12-bar blues, often repeated twice in the blues).
• Solos: one or more choruses for each soloist (e.g. sax 3 choruses, trumpet 2, piano 2), with the rhythm section building.
• Trading fours/eights with the drums.
• Final head, often with a tag (repeating the last 4 bars) or a coda.
• Length: 3:00–10:00 and beyond.

Arrangement by chorus

First chorus: head with restrained accompaniment. Solos: crescendo, horn backgrounds (in big bands), stop-time. Last chorus: head, then a coda with a final chord (often a maj7#11 or a 6/9).

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Acoustic jazz is mixed for realism, depth and dynamics: you should hear a band playing in a room. Balance: soloist up front, piano and double bass well defined, drums as an ensemble sound with a clear ride, natural ambience. Loudness: −18/−14 LUFS integrated (many remastered ECM and Blue Note records sit between −16 and −12), PLR 12–18 dB. References: Miles Davis — Kind of Blue (Columbia, 30th Street Studio), Rudy Van Gelder's Blue Note records, Bill Evans — Sunday at the Village Vanguard, the modern records of Brad Mehldau and Christian McBride.

Drums (kick, snare, cymbals)

• Overheads (spaced pair or ORTF) as the main sound: HP 40–60 Hz, cut at 300–500 Hz if “boxy,” present ride at 3–6 kHz, no excessive boost above 10 kHz.
• Kick: HP 30 Hz, 60–100 Hz (resonant note) light, cut at 300 Hz; no click; minimal compression (1–2 dB).
• Snare: HP 80 Hz, 200 Hz body, 2–5 kHz for brushes and ghost notes; light or no compression.
• Drum bus compression: 1–2 dB with a slow compressor (opto/vari-mu), or none.
• Pan: audience or drummer perspective (choose and stay consistent), width 70–100%.

Double bass

• Microphone (in front of the f-hole, 20–30 cm) + pickup/DI, phase-aligned.
• EQ: HP 35–40 Hz; 80–120 Hz body; cut 200–300 Hz “boom” (−2/−4 dB, Q 1.5); 700 Hz–1.2 kHz attack and definition (+2 dB); 2–4 kHz “wood” and fingers.
• Compression: opto 2–4 dB to even out the notes.
• Center; little or no reverb.

Piano

• Spaced pair or XY inside the grand; HP 40–60 Hz; cut 250–400 Hz if boomy; presence 2–5 kHz; air 10–12 kHz.
• Light compression (1–3 dB, slow) or none.
• Pan: moderate stereo (bass on the left, treble on the right from the pianist's point of view, or the reverse for the audience), width 40–70% in a combo.

Horns (trumpet, sax, trombone)

• Ribbon or condenser mic at 30–60 cm. HP 60–100 Hz; cut 300–500 Hz if nasal; presence 1.5–4 kHz in moderation; de-esser for sax keys if needed.
• Compression 2–4 dB (opto) only if the dynamics are excessive; prefer volume automation.
• Pan: soloist in the center or slightly off-axis (10–20%); in a quintet trumpet and sax at ±15–30%.

Guitar and vibraphone

Guitar: miked amp + room, HP 80 Hz, 2–3 kHz presence, pan 20–40%. Vibraphone: stereo pair, HP 100 Hz, 3–6 kHz attack, moderate stereo pan.

Vocal

HP 80 Hz; cut 200–300 Hz; moderate presence 2–4 kHz; compression 3–5 dB (LA-2A); plate or hall 1.5–2.2 s pre-delay 40–60 ms at a low level.

FX

A single shared space (hall or plate 1.6–2.5 s, pre-delay 20–40 ms) to “put the band in the same room”; return HP 200 Hz LP 8 kHz. No rhythmic delays.

Buses and groups

Band bus with 1 dB of glue (2:1, slow attack) or none; optional light tape.

Sidechain

Never.

Master

Chain: minimal EQ (HP 25 Hz) – compressor 1.5:1 0.5–1 dB (optional) – limiter only on the peaks. Target: −16/−14 LUFS integrated for trio and ballad, −14/−11 for electric jazz or jazz pop; true peak −1 dBTP; don't crush the drum transients (high crest factor).

Common mistakes

Excessive compression that flattens the dynamics, a boomy double bass at 150–250 Hz, a buried or overly bright ride, different reverbs for each instrument, a “rock” kick with click, a master at −9 LUFS.

Mix reference tracks

Miles Davis — So What; John Coltrane — Blue Train; Bill Evans Trio — Waltz for Debby (live); Brad Mehldau — Exit Music (For a Film); Christian McBride Trio — Out Here.

Reference listening

• Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five — West End Blues (1928)
• Duke Ellington — Take the "A" Train (1941)
• Charlie Parker — Ko-Ko (1945)
• Miles Davis — So What (1959)
• Dave Brubeck Quartet — Take Five (1959)
• John Coltrane — Giant Steps (1960)
• Bill Evans Trio — Waltz for Debby (1961)
• John Coltrane — A Love Supreme (1965)
• Herbie Hancock — Chameleon (1973)
• Weather Report — Birdland (1977)
• Robert Glasper Experiment — Afro Blue (2012)
• Kamasi Washington — The Rhythm Changes (2018)