Cool jazz

History and character

Cool jazz is the style that emerged between the late 1940s and the early '50s as a "reflective" reaction to bebop: more relaxed tempos, a lighter sound without vibrato, formal arrangements, counterpoint, classical-music influences, and unusual instrumentation. The starting point is the Miles Davis nonet of the 1949–1950 sessions, later collected as Birth of the Cool (released as an album in 1957), with arrangements by Gil Evans, Gerry Mulligan, John Lewis, and Johnny Carisi, and a lineup with French horn and tuba alongside trumpet, trombone, alto sax (Lee Konitz), and baritone: a sound born from the ideas of the Claude Thornhill orchestra, where Evans, Mulligan, and Konitz had worked between 1946 and 1949.

In New York, Lennie Tristano and his students (Lee Konitz, Warne Marsh) developed an alternative to linear, cerebral bebop; on the West Coast (from the '40s to the '60s) cool became "West Coast jazz": the pianoless quartet of Gerry Mulligan with Chet Baker (1952), Shorty Rogers (a central figure after the breakup of Stan Kenton's orchestra in 1951), Art Pepper, Shelly Manne, Chico Hamilton, Jimmy Giuffre (author of "Four Brothers" for Woody Herman), and Bud Shank. Stan Getz (launched by "Early Autumn" with Woody Herman) brought the cool sound to the tenor and then to bossa nova. The Modern Jazz Quartet of John Lewis and Milt Jackson used classical forms such as the fugue. Dave Brubeck with Paul Desmond explored odd meters: "Time Out" (1959, number two on the Billboard pop charts) contains "Take Five" (5/4) and "Blue Rondo à la Turk" (9/8).

The aesthetic: understatement, soft timbres (the "airy" alto of Desmond and Konitz, Chet Baker's trumpet without vibrato, Mulligan's melodic baritone), long melodic lines, restrained dynamics, brushes, contrapuntal interplay among the horns, and a refined harmony that anticipates modal jazz and bossa nova.

Scales and keys

Major and Lydian (the "bright" color of cool)

• Ionian on F: F G A Bb C D E — 1 2 3 4 5 6 7.
• Lydian on F: F G A B C D E — 1 2 3 #4 5 6 7, W W W H W W H. Characteristic note: the #4 (B), which removes the "avoid note" on the tonic and gives a suspended sound.
• Chords: Fmaj7, Fmaj9, Fmaj7#11, F6/9.
• Use: themes and ballads; voicings with 9 and #11 in Gil Evans's arrangements.
• Example: Gil Evans/Miles Davis — Miles Ahead; Bill Evans (close to the cool aesthetic).

Dorian

• On D: D E F G A B C — 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7. Characteristic note: major 6th (B).
• Use: linear improvisation over ii7 chords; anticipates modal jazz (Davis 1958–59).

Major pentatonic and "wide intervals"

• On F: F G A C D. Use: the "open" melodies of Chet Baker and Paul Desmond (leaps of fourths and fifths, few notes, lots of space).

Melodic minor

• On C: C D Eb F G A B — 1 2 b3 4 5 6 7. Characteristic note: major 6th and 7th over a minor chord (Cm6, CmMaj7). Use: minor ballads (My Funny Valentine in Chet Baker's versions is in C minor with a chromatic descent Cm–CmMaj7–Cm7–Cm6).

Aeolian and natural minor in odd meters

• Eb Aeolian: Eb F Gb Ab Bb Cb Db. Use: "Take Five" (Eb minor, Ebm–Bbm7 vamp) uses the minor scale and the Eb minor pentatonic over the vamp.

Bebop scale and "linear" chromaticism (Tristano)

• Bebop dominant on G: G A B C D E F F#. Tristano and Konitz use long lines of eighth notes with chromaticism, displaced accents, and phrases that "cross" the barlines.

How to choose

Harmony

Harmonic function

Tonal standards harmony (ii–V–I, secondary dominants) with a taste for open chords (maj7, 6/9, maj7#11), soft substitutions, pedals, and contrapuntal lines that create the harmony (in Mulligan's pianoless quartet the harmony is implied by the two lines of baritone and trumpet plus the bass).

Orchestration (Birth of the Cool, Gil Evans)

• Wide, mixed voicings (French horn and tuba in the middle of the horns) that produce a soft blend.
• Inner lines that move by step (chromatic voice leading).
• Chords with 9, 11, 13 distributed among the sections.

Counterpoint

Two or more independent lines, improvised or written (Mulligan and Baker, Konitz and Marsh, the Modern Jazz Quartet with fugue and canon forms).

Odd meters

Brubeck and Desmond: vamps in 5/4 (3+2) and sections in 9/8 (2+2+2+3) alternating with 4/4.

Harmonic rhythm

Medium (1–2 chords per bar); 1–2 chord vamps in pieces in odd meters.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Feel

Relaxed, "laid back" swing, medium tempos, brushes on the snare, light ride. The rhythm section is discreet, the walking bass soft. Alongside swing: odd meters (5/4, 9/8, 6/4) in Brubeck's quartet, "classical-style" straight eighth notes in the Modern Jazz Quartet, bossa nova (Getz).

Accents

Few strong accents, legato and linear phrasing; the horn phrases avoid the "aggressive" accents of bebop and hard bop.

Microtiming

Soloists often behind the beat (Chet Baker), rhythm section precise and light; Lennie Tristano asked his rhythm section for a neutral, constant tempo so that displaced accents could be layered over it.

Drums

Principle

Cool drumming is light and transparent: brushes, soft ride, bass drum almost absent. Drummers: Shelly Manne, Chico Hamilton, Joe Morello (Brubeck), Connie Kay (MJQ), Larry Bunker.

Brushes

Circular motion of the left hand (sweep in quarter notes or half circles), right hand "playing" the swing (spang-a-lang with the brush) and the accents on 2 and 4. This is the most typical sound of cool.

Ride and hi-hat

Light, dark ride; hi-hat on 2 and 4, very delicate.

Bass drum

Very light feathering or nothing; a few soft accents.

Snare

Very discreet comping; rimshots are rare; in odd meters (Take Five), ostinatos with accents on the groups (3+2).

Dynamics and velocity

Low: ride 60–80, brushes 40–70, accents 80–90. The drums must never cover the horns' counterpoint.

Interaction

With the double bass: soft, constant tempo; in pianoless quartets the drums leave a lot of space.

Sections

Theme with brushes, solos with brushes or light sticks, melodic drum solo (Joe Morello in Take Five), return of the theme.

Fills

Short, soft, often just a cymbal accent or a brush roll.

Sounds

Small kit tuned medium-high, dark, thin 20" ride, wire brushes, snare with soft wires.

Typical mistakes

Playing loud and "bebop," a prominent bass drum, bright cymbals, constant fills.

Bass

Sound

Double bass with a soft, round sound (Red Mitchell, Carson Smith, Percy Heath, Eugene Wright).

Role

Light walking, two-beat in the themes, a contrapuntal line in pianoless quartets (the bass becomes the third voice of the counterpoint), ostinatos in odd meters (Take Five: a repeated figure in 5/4).

Relationship with the drums

Soft pulse in quarter notes, very close to the brushes.

Harmonic instruments

• Piano (John Lewis, Dave Brubeck, Lennie Tristano): block voicings, counterpoint, clusters (Brubeck), "classical" style.
• Vibraphone (Milt Jackson in the MJQ).
• Guitar (Jim Hall, Barney Kessel, Johnny Smith): soft chords and lines.
• Horns as harmony: blends of French horn, tuba, flute, bass clarinet (Gil Evans, Jimmy Giuffre).
• In some groups no piano (Mulligan/Baker): the harmony is implied.

Melody and vocals

Melody

Long, soft, lyrical lines with little vibrato; use of the mid-high register of the alto (Desmond, Konitz) and the middle register of the trumpet (Baker); great use of space.

Improvisation

Linear and "horizontal" (Tristano, Konitz, Marsh), melodic and motivic (Baker, Desmond), improvised two-voice counterpoint.

Voice

Chet Baker sings with an intimate, almost spoken voice (Chet Baker Sings, 1954), June Christy, Anita O'Day: "whispered" vocals without vibrato.

Effects

None; natural reverb; harmon mute on the trumpet.

Instruments

• Alto, tenor, and baritone sax
• Trumpet (also with mute), trombone
• French horn, tuba, flute, clarinet (nonet, orchestras)
• Piano (or none), vibraphone, guitar
• Double bass
• Drums with brushes
• Voice

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Piano: Grand piano with a soft touch and little brightness; for the Brubeck style, block chords and clusters; for John Lewis, contrapuntal lines.
• Augmented Strings — Soft strings: For recordings with strings (Chet Baker with Strings, Stan Getz — Focus): legato, dark pads.

Song structure

Form

Head–solos–head as in jazz in general, but with more written parts: arranged intros, interludes between solos, written counterpoint, elaborate codas. Classical forms (fugue, rondo) in the Modern Jazz Quartet; odd-meter vamps with a bridge (Take Five).

Arrangement (nonet, octet)

Written intro – orchestrated theme – solos with soft backgrounds – interlude – theme – coda; length 3:00–6:00.

Pianoless quartet

Theme in counterpoint (trumpet and baritone) – solos with the other horn "accompanying" with long lines – return in counterpoint.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Soft, intimate, and transparent: horns with a round sound (no aggressive highs), brushes audible but delicate, warm double bass, natural space. Many West Coast recordings (Contemporary Records, Pacific Jazz) were very clean and "close." Loudness −18/−14 LUFS, wide dynamics.

Drums and brushes

Overheads/stereo pair as the main sound; HP 50 Hz; brushes present at 3–8 kHz (don't boost too much); bass drum almost absent; no compression. Pan 60–80%.

Double bass

HP 40 Hz; 80–110 Hz body; −2/−3 dB at 220 Hz; +1/+2 dB at 800 Hz; opto 2–3 dB. Center.

Piano / vibraphone / guitar

Piano: HP 40 Hz; −2 dB at 300 Hz; 2–3 kHz +1 dB; moderate stereo. Vibraphone: HP 120 Hz; 3–5 kHz; tremolo motor often off (Milt Jackson used it slow). Guitar: HP 80 Hz; 1–3 kHz; soft.

Horns

• Alto (Desmond/Konitz): HP 120 Hz; −2 dB at 1–1.5 kHz if "nasal"; air 8–10 kHz +1 dB.
• Trumpet (Baker): HP 100 Hz; −1/−2 dB at 2.5–3.5 kHz to soften; 200–400 Hz warmth.
• Baritone (Mulligan): HP 50 Hz; 150–250 Hz body; −2 dB at 400 Hz.
• French horn and tuba: HP 50/30 Hz; little presence (they are the "glue" of the blend).
• Compression: none or 1–2 dB opto; automation for the solos.
• Pan: in the pianoless quartet, trumpet and baritone at ±20–30%; in the nonet, a fan across the stage.

Vocals (Chet Baker, June Christy)

HP 80 Hz; −2 dB at 250 Hz; moderate presence at 2–3 kHz; air at 10 kHz; compression 3–4 dB (LA-2A); plate 1.5–2 s, 40 ms pre-delay; very close.

FX

Soft plate or chamber 1.5–2 s (LP 7 kHz return); no delay.

Buses and groups

No glue or 0.5–1 dB.

Sidechain

Never.

Master

Chain: minimal EQ (possibly −0.5 dB at 3 kHz to soften) – limiter on the peaks. Target −16/−14 LUFS, true peak −1 dBTP.

Common mistakes

Bright, modern highs that make the horns "harsh," brushes too loud or too compressed, boomy double bass, long reverb that erases the counterpoint.

Reference tracks for the mix

Miles Davis — Boplicity (Birth of the Cool); Gerry Mulligan Quartet — Bernie's Tune; Chet Baker — My Funny Valentine (1954); Dave Brubeck Quartet — Take Five; Modern Jazz Quartet — Django.

Reference listening

• Woody Herman — Early Autumn (con Stan Getz, 1948)
• Miles Davis — Boplicity (Birth of the Cool, 1949)
• Lennie Tristano — Wow (1949)
• Gerry Mulligan Quartet — Bernie's Tune (1952)
• Chet Baker — My Funny Valentine (1954)
• Modern Jazz Quartet — Django (1954)
• Art Pepper — Art Pepper Meets the Rhythm Section (1957)
• Dave Brubeck Quartet — Take Five (1959)
• Dave Brubeck Quartet — Blue Rondo à la Turk (1959)
• Stan Getz — Focus (1961)