Latin jazz

History and character

Latin jazz is jazz that integrates Afro-Cuban and Brazilian rhythms (and, to a lesser extent, Puerto Rican, Caribbean, and other Latin American ones). The Afro-Cuban strand was born in New York in the 1940s: Mario Bauzá, musical director of Machito and His Afro-Cubans, wrote "Tanga" (1943), considered the first true Latin jazz piece, born as a descarga (Cuban jam) on the clave; the same orchestra later hosted jazz soloists in long jams. In 1947 Dizzy Gillespie and the percussionist Chano Pozo recorded "Manteca", the first jazz standard built rhythmically on the clave (Pozo created the layered guajeos, Gillespie the bridge): cubop was born.

In the 1950s and 60s Latin jazz grew with Tito Puente, Machito, Cal Tjader (vibraphone, West Coast Latin jazz), Mongo Santamaría ("Afro Blue", 1959, the first jazz standard on a 3:2 polyrhythm; "Watermelon Man", 1962), Ray Barretto, Eddie Palmieri, and Willie Bobo. The Brazilian strand exploded with the bossa nova of Antônio Carlos Jobim and João Gilberto (mid-1950s) and with the album Getz/Gilberto (1964, "The Girl from Ipanema"); then came samba-jazz, Sergio Mendes, Airto Moreira, Hermeto Pascoal, and Egberto Gismonti. From the 1970s: Irakere and Chucho Valdés in Cuba, Paquito D'Rivera and Arturo Sandoval, Poncho Sanchez, Michel Camilo, Gonzalo Rubalcaba, Danilo Pérez, Dafnis Prieto, Miguel Zenón.

The organizing principle is the clave (a two-bar figure, 3-2 or 2-3, terminology developed by Bauzá), to which the bass tumbao, the piano montuno, the percussion (congas, bongos, timbales, güiro, claves), and the horn lines align; on top of it, players improvise with the harmonic language of jazz.

Scales and keys

Dorian (the montuno minor)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — T S T T T S T. On A: A B C D E F# G.
• Characteristic note: major 6th (F#): i7–IV7 vamps (Am7–D7) typical of descarga and boogaloo.
• Chords: Am7, Bm7, Cmaj7, D7, Em7, F#ø7, Gmaj7.
• Example: Tito Puente — Oye Como Va (Am7–D9 vamp).

Harmonic minor (son, bolero, minor mambo)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 7 — T S T T S 3S S. On D: D E F G A Bb C#.
• Characteristic note: the major 7th (C#) with the b6 (Bb): the augmented second Bb–C# gives the "Hispanic" color.
• Chords: DmMaj7/Dm6 (i), Eø7 (iiø), Fmaj7#5, Gm7 (iv), A7 (V7), Bbmaj7 (bVI), C#°7.
• Use: minor montunos, mambo, iiø–V7–i cadences.
• Example: Dizzy Gillespie — Manteca (minor sections); Machito — Tanga.

Phrygian dominant (5th mode of harmonic minor)

• Formula: 1 b2 3 4 5 b6 b7. On A: A Bb C# D E F G.
• Characteristic note: b2 with a major 3rd: the "Spanish" V7b9. Use: on the dominant of minor tunes (A7b9 → Dm).

Major and Mixolydian (bossa, cha-cha-chá, major son)

• Major on F: F G A Bb C D E. Mixolydian on C: C D E F G A Bb.
• Use: bossa (Jobim) and cha-cha-chá melodies; Mixolydian in major I7–IV7 vamps.

Lydian and the "Jobim" scales

• Lydian on F: F G A B C D E (#4). Lydian dominant on D: D E F# G# A B C (II7#11 and bII7#11 are typical of bossa: in the A section of The Girl from Ipanema, in the key of F of the lead sheets, Fmaj7 is followed by G7 and then by Gm7–Gb7, both dominants with #11).
• Use: the suspended colors of bossa nova.

Pentatonic and blues

• On C: C Eb F G Bb (+ F#). Use: horn phrases in boogaloo and Latin soul; "blues" montuno (Watermelon Man is a 16-bar blues).

How to choose

Harmony

Montuno and vamp

The Afro-Cuban harmonic heart is the montuno: a repeated 2- or 4-bar figure over the i–iv–V7 or I–IV–V7 (or i7–IV7) changes, synchronized with the clave, over which players improvise (descarga). Jazz themes add sections with "standard" harmony (ii–V, bridge).

Bossa nova harmony

Seventh chords and extensions, chromatic motion in the inner voices, #11 dominants, ii–V with substitutions, half-step modulations (Jobim): harmony close to cool jazz.

Typical elements

• i–iv–V7 (Dm–Gm–A7) and I–IV–V7 in the son.
• iiø–V7b9–i in minor.
• Dorian i7–IV7.
• bII7#11 as a dominant substitute (bossa).
• Bass pedal in the tumbao.

Voicings

Piano montuno in octaves with the third/sixth in the middle (guajeo), syncopated two-handed chords; bossa guitar with 4-note voicings on strings 2–5 (bass with the thumb on 1 and 3); horns in 3–4 part harmony with response (moña).

Harmonic rhythm

Montuno: 1 chord every 1–2 bars in a 2/4-bar cycle tied to the clave. Bossa: 1–2 chords per bar.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

The clave

A two-bar guide pattern: 3-2 son clave (on a grid of 16 eighth notes over two bars: positions 1, 4, 7 | 11, 13) or 2-3 (the two halves reversed); rumba clave with the third hit displaced (1, 4, 8 | 11, 13). The whole arrangement (melody, montuno, horns, bass) must respect the "direction" of the clave.

Rhythmic layers

• Bass tumbao: anticipated notes on the "and" of 2 (bombo) and on 4 (ponche), tied across the bar line: the bass almost never plays the one.
• Conga tumbao: slap and open tone on the upbeats, open tone on 4 and on 4-and.
• Cáscara (shell of the timbale) in the verses, campana (mambo bell) in the mambos and montunos.
• Bongo with the martillo (eighths), the bongo player's bell in the montunos.
• Güiro and maracas in eighths.

Feel

Straight, precise eighths (no swing in son and mambo), often counted in 2/2; Afro 6/8 (bembé, 3 against 2); bossa with slightly rounded eighths; samba in 2/4 with the surdo on 2.

Microtiming

Cuban percussion has a slight "push" on the upbeats; bossa is soft and just barely laid back.

Drums

Principle

Drums in Latin jazz translate the percussion section onto the kit (or complement it): the right hand plays cáscara or bell, the left plays the clave on the rim, the kick plays the bass tumbao, the left foot plays 2 and 4 or the quarter notes. Key drummers: Ignacio Berroa, Horacio "El Negro" Hernández, Dafnis Prieto, Antonio Sánchez; in bossa Milton Banana, Edison Machado.

Right hand

Cáscara (2-3 or 3-2 pattern on the timbale shell or on the rim of the floor tom) in the verses; bell or ride in quarter notes/mambo bell in the montunos.

Left hand

Clave on the snare rim (cross-stick), or a high tom as a conga (tumbao).

Kick

Bombo on the "and" of 2 of the "3" bar of the clave and on 4 (in unison with the bass): pos. 4 and 7 on a grid of eight eighth notes per bar.

Foot hi-hat

2 and 4 or quarter notes (songo, mozambique).

Percussion

Congas (tumbao), bongos (martillo), timbales (cáscara, bells, abanico = a transitional roll into the mambo), güiro, maracas, claves.

Dynamics

Light verse (cáscara), loud montuno (bells), mambo (horn section) with all the cowbells; abanico and "cierre" (group stop) to close sections.

Interaction

Bass and kick define the anticipation of the tumbao; the congas and piano montuno interlock; the horns play moñas (riffs) in clave.

Sections

Intro, head (cáscara), montuno/solos (bell), horn mambo, coda with cierre.

Fills

Timbale rolls (abanico), fills in clave, group accents (cierres).

Sounds

Bright metallic timbales, bells of various timbres, congas tuned in fourths (quinto, conga, tumbadora), small jazz kit.

Typical mistakes

Ignoring the clave (fills and accents against its direction), kick on the one as in rock, swinging the eighths, percussion all at the same dynamic.

Bass

Sound

Upright bass, electric bass, or baby bass (Ampeg electric upright, the round "boom" sound typical of salsa and New York Latin jazz).

Tumbao

Anticipated notes: the note of the next chord arrives on the "and" of 2 and on 4 of the previous bar (e.g. over Dm–Gm: A on the "and" of 2, D on 4 tied into the next bar), creating the typical push.

Bossa

Root and fifth on 1 and 3 (in 2/4: on 1 and 2), with the fifth anticipated; in samba following the surdo (accent on 2).

Relationship with the kick

Kick and bass in unison on the tumbao hits (bombo and ponche).

Harmonic instruments

• Piano: montuno (guajeo) in octaves with an inner third or sixth, syncopated and aligned with the clave; jazz chords in the heads.
• Vibraphone (Cal Tjader, Dave Pike): chords and lines.
• Guitar (bossa): batida (thumb on the bass, fingers on the syncopated chords), voicings with 7, 9, 13.
• Tres cubano and cuatro (in the son).
• Horns: trumpets, trombones, saxes in moñas and mambo (layered riffs), flute (charanga, Herbie Mann).
• Hammond organ in Latin soul (Oye Como Va in the Santana version).

Melody and vocals

Melody

Jazz themes with syncopated phrases in clave, high trumpet lines (Arturo Sandoval), flute and vibraphone; in bossa, long, singable melodies with passing notes and chromaticism (Jobim).

Improvisation

Bebop language over the montuno, pentatonics and harmonic minor, rhythmic phrases that "play" with the clave.

Vocals

Coro–pregón (a chorus that repeats the refrain, a soloist who improvises); in bossa a whispered, intimate voice (João and Astrud Gilberto).

Effects

None; room reverb.

Instruments

• Congas, bongos, timbales, güiro, maracas, claves, cowbells
• Jazz drums
• Piano, vibraphone, guitar (bossa), tres
• Upright bass, baby bass, electric bass
• Trumpets, trombones, saxes, flute
• Voice and chorus

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Montuno piano: Bright grand piano with a marked attack for octave guajeos; light compression.
• B-3 V — Latin soul organ: Drawbars 888000000 with fast Leslie (Oye Como Va).
• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: Bossa and electric Latin jazz (Chick Corea, Cal Tjader in the 1970s).

Song structure

Afro-Cuban jazz form

• Intro (percussion or montuno, 4–16).
• Head (AABA or its own form, often with alternating swing 4/4 and clave sections: Manteca, A Night in Tunisia).
• Montuno/solos: a vamp in clave for the solos (8–64 bars each).
• Mambo: horn section with layered riffs.
• Percussion solo (congas, timbales).
• Final head and coda with cierre (ensemble stop).

Bossa form

Intro (4–8) – AABA head (32) or ABAB – Solos – Head – Coda (tag and fade). 2:30–5:00.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

A lively and transparent rhythm section: every percussion instrument must be distinguishable (congas, bongos, timbales, bells, güiro), round bass, clear piano montuno, bright horns, soloists up front. References: Tito Puente — Oye Como Va, Poncho Sanchez, Irakere, Getz/Gilberto for bossa. Loudness −14/−11 LUFS (Latin jazz), −16/−13 (bossa).

Drums and timbales

Overheads HP 80 Hz, bells and cáscara present at 3–6 kHz; timbales: HP 150 Hz, 300–500 Hz body, 4–5 kHz attack, compression 2–3 dB, pan 30–50%.

Congas and bongos

Congas: HP 80 Hz; 150–250 Hz body (open tone); 4–6 kHz slap; compression 2–3 dB; pan: tumbadora −30/−50%, conga −10/−30% (or according to the setup). Bongos: HP 150 Hz; 4–7 kHz; pan +30/+50%. Short room 0.5–0.8 s.

Güiro, maracas, claves, bells

HP 400–600 Hz; presence 5–8 kHz; wide pans (60–80%) so as not to crowd the center; claves at center or 10–20%.

Bass / baby bass

HP 35 Hz; 70–110 Hz +2 dB; 250 Hz −2 dB; 700 Hz–1 kHz +2 dB; opto 3–5 dB. Center.

Piano (montuno)

HP 60 Hz; −2 dB at 300 Hz; 2–4 kHz presence for the attack; compression 2–4 dB to keep the guajeo even; moderate stereo pan (40–60%).

Horns

Trumpets: HP 150 Hz; 1.5–3 kHz presence (careful at 3–4 kHz); bus 2–3 dB; trombones: HP 80 Hz, 200–400 Hz body. Fan-shaped pan; plate/hall 1.5 s.

Flute and vibraphone

Flute: HP 200 Hz; −2 dB at 1 kHz if nasal; air 8–12 kHz; plate. Vibraphone: HP 120 Hz; 3–5 kHz; moderate stereo.

Vocals and chorus (pregón)

Voice: HP 90 Hz; 3 kHz +2 dB; compression 4–5 dB; plate 1.5 s. Chorus: HP 150 Hz; compression 6 dB; doubled L/R.

Bossa guitar

Mic + DI; HP 80 Hz; −2 dB at 200 Hz; presence 3–5 kHz; light compression; pan 20–30% or center with the voice.

FX

One common hall (hall 1.8–2.2 s); short room for the percussion.

Buses and groups

Percussion bus (1–2 dB, no aggressive compression so as not to lose the accents), horn bus, rhythm bus.

Sidechain

None.

Master

Chain: minimal EQ – compressor 2:1 1 dB – limiter. Target −14/−11 LUFS integrated, true peak −1 dBTP; leave the percussion transients alone (high crest factor).

Common mistakes

Percussion piled up in the center, bells too loud, a bass that plays the one (wrong in the tumbao), compression that flattens slaps and accents, long reverb on the congas.

Reference tracks for mixing

Tito Puente — Oye Como Va; Poncho Sanchez — Watermelon Man; Irakere — Bacalao con pan; Stan Getz & João Gilberto — The Girl from Ipanema; Chucho Valdés — Mambo Influenciado.

Reference listening

• Machito and His Afro-Cubans — Tanga (1943)
• Dizzy Gillespie & Chano Pozo — Manteca (1947)
• Mongo Santamaría — Afro Blue (1959)
• Mongo Santamaría — Watermelon Man (1962)
• Tito Puente — Oye Como Va (1963)
• Stan Getz & João Gilberto — The Girl from Ipanema (1964)
• Cal Tjader — Soul Sauce (1965)
• Irakere — Bacalao con pan (1973)
• Poncho Sanchez — Watermelon Man (versione latin jazz, anni '80)
• Michel Camilo — Why Not! (1985)