Vocal jazz

History and character

Vocal jazz is jazz in which the voice is the lead instrument: it interprets standards with rhythmic and melodic freedom, improvises with scat or vocalese, and converses with the band like a horn. Its roots lie in work songs, field hollers, and the call and response of the African American tradition, and in the classic female blues of the 1920s (Ma Rainey, Bessie Smith); Louis Armstrong popularized it in the late '20s and, with "Heebie Jeebies" (1926), recorded one of the first scat solos. In the '30s and '40s the great voices grew up with the big bands and then became soloists: Billie Holiday ("Strange Fruit", 1939), Ella Fitzgerald (with Chick Webb, then the Songbooks of the '50s and '60s and the scat on "How High the Moon" in Berlin in 1960), Sarah Vaughan, Dinah Washington, Frank Sinatra (with Tommy Dorsey, then with Nelson Riddle's arrangements), Nat King Cole.

In the '50s the "cool" generation (Peggy Lee, June Christy, Chris Connor, Helen Merrill, Chet Baker, Carmen McRae, Joe Williams with Count Basie) brought a more intimate, conversational vocal style; vocalese was born (lyrics written to famous solos: Eddie Jefferson, King Pleasure "Moody's Mood for Love", Lambert, Hendricks & Ross) along with jazz vocal groups. Then came Betty Carter, Mel Tormé, Abbey Lincoln, Nina Simone, Al Jarreau, Bobby McFerrin, The Manhattan Transfer, Take 6, Cassandra Wilson, Kurt Elling, Diana Krall, Norah Jones (pop crossover, 2002), Gregory Porter, Cécile McLorin Salvant, Samara Joy, up to the jazz pop of Laufey.

Typical techniques: scat (imitating the timbre and rhythm of an instrument), flexible intonation and "bent" notes, conversational diction with precise consonants and soft vowel releases, less legato and less vibrato than classical singing, phrasing often behind the beat, mixed register in the mid-low range, and use of the microphone as an instrument (proximity, whisper).

Scales and keys

The Singer's Approach

The jazz singer starts from the melody of the standard and varies it (rhythm, passing tones, embellishments); to improvise (scat) they use the same scales as instrumentalists, but with singability as the priority: comfortable intervals, chord tones on strong beats, phrases that breathe.

Major (Ionian) and Chord Tones

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7. On F: F G A Bb C D E.
• Characteristic note: 3 and 7 (A, E) as target notes that "spell out" the chord.
• Chords: Fmaj7, Gm7, Am7, Bbmaj7, C7, Dm7, Eø7.
• Use: melody variations, endings on the 9 or the 6 (F6/9).

Major and Minor Pentatonic (Scat)

• Major on F: F G A C D. Minor on D: D F G A C.
• Use: the basis of "singable" scat; Ella Fitzgerald alternates pentatonics, arpeggios, and quotations.

Blues Scale

• On F: F Ab Bb B C Eb. Characteristic note: blue notes (b3, b5, b7) sung "between" the semitones.
• Use: inflections, glissandi, "gritty" endings; Dinah Washington, Billie Holiday, Joe Williams.

Dorian and Mixolydian over ii–V

• Dorian on G: G A Bb C D E F. Mixolydian on C: C D E F G A Bb.
• Use: scat lines over ii–V; the 9 on the ii and the 13 on the V are "sweet" notes for the voice.

Bebop Dominant (Bebop Scat)

• On C: C D E F G A Bb B. Use: fast eighth-note lines (Ella, Sarah Vaughan, Betty Carter), enclosures and chromatic approaches.

Melodic Minor and Lydian (Modern Ballads)

• Melodic minor on D: D E F G A B C#. Lydian on F: F G A B C D E.
• Use: ballad colors (endings on maj7#11, m6/9), the style of Sarah Vaughan and Cécile McLorin Salvant.

Common Mistakes

Scatting "at random" with the same syllables and no shape, singing every note "clean" with no inflections, ignoring the lyrics (in vocal jazz the lyrics guide the phrasing), modern R&B ornaments that are out of style.

How to Choose

Harmony

The Harmony of Standards

The repertoire is that of the Great American Songbook (Gershwin, Porter, Kern, Rodgers & Hart, Arlen, Berlin, Ellington, Jobim): AABA, ABAC, and verse + refrain forms, with ii–V–I, secondary dominants, passing diminished chords, and modulations in the bridge.

The Introductory "Verse"

Many standards have an introductory verse, often sung rubato with only piano before the refrain comes in at tempo.

Reharmonization for the Voice

Arrangers and pianists reharmonize to support the voice: tritone substitutions, pedal points, sus chords, chromatic bass climbs, and endings with "tags" (repeating the last bars with an I–VI7–ii–V or iii–VI–ii–V turnaround).

Key and Range

The key is chosen according to the singer's range (often lower than the instrumental original): a difference of a fourth or a fifth completely changes the color.

Accompaniment Voicings

Piano with rootless voicings in the middle register, leaving room for the voice (avoid doubling the melody in the same register); guitar with 3-note chords; strings and winds in orchestral arrangements (Nelson Riddle, Gordon Jenkins).

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Phrasing

The jazz voice delays or anticipates the melody relative to the pulse (Billie Holiday sang far behind the beat), lengthens and shortens notes, and shifts syllables onto the upbeats. The rhythm section must keep a rock-steady tempo to allow this "elasticity".

Feel

Medium swing and ballads are the most common; bossa and samba (from the mid-'60s), jazz waltz, and up-tempo for scat.

Rubato

Verses, intros, and codas are often out of tempo (piano and voice), with the return to tempo cued by the pianist.

Scat and Rhythm

Scat is above all rhythm: syllables that imitate the drum hits and the articulation of the horns ("doo-bee-doo", "bop", "dat").

Drums

Principle

The drummer accompanies a voice: lighter and more attentive than with a saxophone, leaving room for the words, following the breaths and the rubato, supporting crescendos without covering the singer. Brushes are the main tool on ballads and medium tempos.

Brushes and Ride

Brushes sweeping in quarter notes with accents on 2 and 4; on instrumental choruses, switch to sticks on the ride (light spang-a-lang).

Hi-Hat

Soft on 2 and 4.

Kick and Snare

Kick almost absent; very discreet snare comping, never over the words; accents only in the gaps of the voice.

Dynamics and Velocity

Low during the vocal (brushes 30–60, ride 50–80), higher in the instrumental solos and the final chorus.

Interaction

Listen to the lyrics: fill the gaps between phrases (a one-bar fill at the end of a line), underline key words with a light cymbal, follow the final rallentandos.

Sections

Rubato verse (no drums or just cymbals with mallets), refrain with brushes, instrumental solo, return of the vocal (often from the bridge), final tag with ritardando.

Fills

Short and soft, always in the gaps of the voice.

Sounds

Small kit, snare with soft snare wires, dark ride, metal brushes and mallets.

Typical Mistakes

Playing over the words, cymbals too loud, ignoring the rubato, fills in the middle of phrases.

Bass

Sound

Warm, round upright bass; electric bass in jazz pop and crossover.

Role

Two-feel in the first chorus, walking in the second, long notes in ballads, pedal points in verses; the bass gives the voice the root for intonation.

Notes

Clear roots on the changes, melodic passing tones that don't disturb the voice (avoid the register of a low male voice).

Examples

Ray Brown (with Ella Fitzgerald), John Clayton (with Diana Krall), Christian McBride.

Harmonic instruments

• Piano: the voice's main partner (Tommy Flanagan with Ella, Jimmy Rowles, Ellis Larkins, Mulgrew Miller): intros, rootless comping in the middle register, answers between phrases.
• Guitar: voice-guitar duo (Joe Pass with Ella), 3-note comping, bossa.
• Orchestra: strings and winds in the arrangements of Nelson Riddle, Gordon Jenkins, Billy May, Quincy Jones, Claus Ogerman.
• Organ and Rhodes in soul and modern vocal jazz.

Melody and vocals

Lead Vocal

• Register: mixed (chest-head), often in the mid-low range; typical female voices work between F3 and D5, male voices between G2 and F4 (with falsetto).
• Technique: conversational diction, precise consonants, delayed and moderate vibrato (at the end of long notes), glissandi and scoops, bent notes, soft attacks; dynamics from a whisper to full voice.
• Interpretation: vary the melody and rhythm of the theme, respect the meaning of the lyrics.

Scat and Vocalese

• Scat: improvisation with syllables that imitate an instrument (Ella: "bop", "doo-bee", "dat"; Sarah Vaughan: "sax-like" phrases).
• Vocalese: lyrics written to a famous instrumental solo (Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, Eddie Jefferson, The Manhattan Transfer).

Choirs and Groups

Vocal groups in 4–6-part harmony (Lambert, Hendricks & Ross, Manhattan Transfer, Take 6, New York Voices), vocal drop-2 voicings.

Effects

Close microphone (proximity effect), soft plate or hall, no modern effects.

Instruments

• Lead vocal (and vocal groups)
• Piano, guitar
• Upright bass
• Drums (brushes)
• Sax, trumpet (solos and answers)
• String orchestra and big band (arrangements)

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Piano: Warm grand piano, close mics but not too bright; voicings in the middle register under the voice.
• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: Soul and modern vocal jazz (Gregory Porter, Norah Jones): light tremolo.
• Augmented Strings — Strings: Orchestral ballads in the Nelson Riddle style: violins in octaves above the voice, violas and cellos holding the thirds and sevenths.
• B-3 V — Organ: Sung blues and gospel jazz (Dinah Washington, Gregory Porter).

Song structure

Typical Form (Sung Standard)

• Intro (4–8) by the piano or band, or a rubato verse.
• Sung refrain (one 32-bar chorus, often the first in two-feel).
• Instrumental solo (half a chorus or one chorus; sometimes the singer's scat).
• Return of the vocal (from the bridge or the last A).
• Tag (repeating the last 4 bars 2–3 times) and coda with ritardando and a final chord (often 6/9 or maj7#11).
• Length 3:00–6:00.

Arrangement

Sober verse, growth in the second chorus (walking, ride), solo, more intense return, intimate ending; in orchestral versions the strings enter at the bridge and the ending.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic Goal

The voice is the center: close, warm, natural, with the lyrics always intelligible; a soft, transparent band around it. References: Ella Fitzgerald — Ella Fitzgerald Sings the Cole Porter Songbook, Frank Sinatra — In the Wee Small Hours, Diana Krall — The Look of Love, Norah Jones — Come Away with Me, Gregory Porter — Liquid Spirit, Samara Joy — Linger Awhile. Loudness −16/−13 LUFS (jazz), −13/−10 (crossover jazz pop).

Vocal

• Microphone: large-diaphragm condenser (U47/U87 or similar) or ribbon, at 10–25 cm, pop filter.
• EQ: HP 70–90 Hz (watch the proximity effect: −2 dB at 150–250 Hz if too "boomy"); −1/−2 dB at 300–500 Hz if nasal/boxy; presence 2–4 kHz (+1/+2 dB, used sparingly); air 10–12 kHz (+1/+2 dB); de-esser at 5–8 kHz.
• Compression: opto (LA-2A) 3–5 dB, optionally preceded by a slow 1176 on the peaks only (2 dB). Vocal jazz needs dynamics: use volume automation phrase by phrase before the compressor.
• Saturation: tube preamp or light tape.
• Space: plate or hall 1.5–2.5 s, pre-delay 40–80 ms, at a moderate level; no tempo-synced delay (at most a very low slap).
• Pan: center.

Piano

HP 40–60 Hz; −2/−3 dB at 300–500 Hz (the vocal zone); moderate presence at 2–3 kHz; compression 1–2 dB; moderate stereo pan; it must sit behind the voice.

Upright Bass

HP 40 Hz; 80–110 Hz; −3 dB at 200–250 Hz; +1/+2 dB at 800 Hz; opto 2–3 dB; center.

Drums

Overhead pair with brushes as the main sound; HP 60 Hz; no compression; very low in the mix.

Winds and Strings

Winds: HP 100 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz, compression 2 dB, reverb longer than the voice's. Strings: HP 150–200 Hz, air 10–12 kHz, wide, hall 2–2.5 s; dynamic ducking from the voice (1–2 dB at 1–3 kHz).

FX

One common hall/plate for voice and instruments (with different sends); for a "1950s" color, an echo chamber.

Buses and Groups

Band bus with 1 dB of glue; no aggressive compression bus.

Sidechain

Dynamic ducking (not pumping) of piano/strings from the voice in the 1–3 kHz zone.

Master

Chain: minimal EQ – compressor 1.5:1 1 dB – limiter. Target −15/−13 LUFS integrated for jazz, −11/−10 for jazz pop; true peak −1 dBTP.

Common Mistakes

Vocal compressed and "pop" so it loses intimacy, excessive sibilance, piano occupying 300 Hz–2 kHz and covering the lyrics, long reverb that pushes the voice away, drums too present.

Mix Reference Tracks

Ella Fitzgerald — Every Time We Say Goodbye; Frank Sinatra — In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning; Diana Krall — The Look of Love; Norah Jones — Don't Know Why; Gregory Porter — Hey Laura; Samara Joy — Can't Get Out of This Mood.

Reference listening

• Louis Armstrong and His Hot Five — Heebie Jeebies (1926)
• Billie Holiday — Strange Fruit (1939)
• Nat King Cole — Unforgettable (1951)
• King Pleasure — Moody's Mood for Love (1952)
• Frank Sinatra — In the Wee Small Hours of the Morning (1955)
• Ella Fitzgerald — Every Time We Say Goodbye (Cole Porter Songbook, 1956)
• Sarah Vaughan — Misty (1958)
• Lambert, Hendricks & Ross — Twisted (1959)
• Ella Fitzgerald — How High the Moon (Live in Berlin, 1960)
• The Manhattan Transfer — Birdland (1979)
• Norah Jones — Don't Know Why (2002)
• Gregory Porter — Hey Laura (2013)
• Samara Joy — Linger Awhile (album, 2022)