Big band

History and character

The big band is the jazz orchestra of 13–20 musicians organized in sections: trumpets, trombones, saxophones, and a rhythm section (piano, guitar, double bass, drums, sometimes vibraphone or percussion). It emerged in the 1910s and '20s from the dance orchestras (Art Hickman in San Francisco in 1916, Paul Whiteman with arranger Ferde Grofé from 1919, Fletcher Henderson with Don Redman in New York), grew with swing (from 1935: Benny Goodman, Count Basie, Duke Ellington, Jimmie Lunceford, Chick Webb, Glenn Miller), and survived the end of the swing era (the 1942–44 musicians' strike, running costs, the arrival of bebop) by turning into a concert orchestra.

In the postwar years the big band became a laboratory: the Dizzy Gillespie Orchestra (bebop and Cubop), Woody Herman (First and Second Herd, with the famous "Four Brothers" sound of three tenors and a baritone), Stan Kenton ("progressive jazz" in the '50s, with sections of up to five trumpets and five trombones), Count Basie's "New Testament" band with arrangements by Neal Hefti, Quincy Jones, Frank Foster, and Sammy Nestico ("April in Paris" 1955, "The Atomic Mr. Basie" 1957), Duke Ellington with Billy Strayhorn (Newport 1956), Gil Evans with Miles Davis, Maynard Ferguson, Buddy Rich, the Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra (from 1966 at the Village Vanguard, today the Vanguard Jazz Orchestra), and Toshiko Akiyoshi. Today: Maria Schneider, Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band, Bob Mintzer, the European radio big bands (WDR, NDR, Metropole Orkest), and Jacob Collier and Snarky Puppy in collaboration.

The modern "standard" 17-piece lineup: 5 saxes (2 altos, 2 tenors, baritone, often doubling on flute and clarinet), 4 trumpets (also flugelhorn), 4 trombones (the fourth is a bass trombone), 4-piece rhythm section. On stage the "lead" parts (first trumpet, first trombone, first alto) sit at the center of their sections, while the soloists (second tenor, second or fourth trumpet, second trombone) sit close to the rhythm section. The language is that of the arranger: section voicings, soli, backgrounds, kicks, shout choruses.

Scales and keys

The arranger's point of view

In the big band, scales serve two purposes: (1) for the soloists, as in jazz in general; (2) for the arranger, to harmonize the lines in sections (every melody note receives a chord from the scale of the current chord). That is why it is essential to know which notes are chord tones and which are passing tones.

Bebop major and the "diminished sixth" (block harmonization)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 #5 6 7. On C: C D E F G G# A B.
• Characteristic note: the passing #5 (G#): by alternating C6 (C E G A) on the chord tones and Bdim7 (B D F G#) on the passing tones, you harmonize every note of the melody (the technique of Barry Harris and of "block" sax soli).
• Use: sax soli in 4-way close, with the baritone doubling the melody an octave below.
• Common mistakes: harmonizing a passing tone with the tonic chord: it creates "stagnation"; it should be harmonized with the diminished chord.

Bebop dominant

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 7. On G: G A B C D E F F#. Same logic: G7 on the chord tones, F#dim7 (= A C Eb F#) on the passing tones.

Mixolydian, Lydian dominant, altered (colors of the brass section)

• Mixolydian on G: G A B C D E F. Lydian dominant on G: G A B C# D E F (#11). Altered on G: G Ab Bb B Db Eb F.
• Use: brass voicings on dominants (G13, G13#11, G7#9b13): the arranger chooses the tensions according to the scale.

Dorian and melodic minor

• Dorian on D: D E F G A B C. Melodic minor on C: C D Eb F G A B.
• Use: minor sections, ballads (Cm6, CmMaj9), voicings with 6 and 9 in the trumpets.

Blues and pentatonic

• Blues on F: F Ab Bb B C Eb. Use: Kansas City riffs (Basie), shout choruses, solos; many charts are blues in F and Bb.

"Quartal" pentatonics (modern big band)

• Minor pentatonic on D: D F G A C, voiced in fourths (A D G C F). Use: modern sounds of Thad Jones, Maria Schneider, Bob Mintzer.

How to choose

Harmony

Enriched functional harmony

The repertoire is made of standards, blues, and original pieces with tonal, jazz harmony (ii–V–I, secondary dominants, tritone substitutions, altered chords). The modern big band adds quartal chords, clusters, upper structures, modulations by thirds, and light polytonality (Thad Jones, Gil Evans, Maria Schneider).

Section voicings (the basic techniques)

• 4-way close: four voices in close position under the melody (saxes or trumpets), with the baritone doubling the melody an octave below.
• Drop 2: the second voice from the top drops an octave (more open, more "full"); drop 2+4 for five voices.
• Spread voicing: root and seventh in the bass trombones, thirds and tensions above (ballads and "tutti").
• Unison and octave: for fast bebop lines and for riffs.
• Clusters and voicings with seconds (trumpets in a high cluster for a Thad Jones shout).

Orchestration rules

• Trombones: avoid close thirds below F2 (they turn to mud: "low interval limits").
• Trumpets: the first trumpet provides the color; tensions (9, 13) go in the inner voices.
• Tutti: trumpets in close position on top, trombones in spread below, saxes doubling or playing a countermelody.

Harmonic rhythm and form

1–2 chords per bar in standards; "pedal" and vamp in the intros and backgrounds; modulations for the shout chorus or for the last statement of the theme.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Feel

Swing in 4/4 with the rhythm section in quarter notes (walking bass, Freddie Green-style guitar, ride) and the horns "phrasing" the swing: long-short eighth notes, accents on the upbeats, short notes ("dah-dit"), long notes with a fall or a scoop. The modern big band adds funk, Latin (mambo, songo, samba), shuffle, 3/4, 6/8, and odd meters.

Kicks, set-ups, and figures

The horns' written accents (kicks) often land on the upbeats (the "&" of 4, the "&" of 2): the drummer anticipates them with a set-up (a single hit or a short fill) and underlines them ("catch") with the bass drum or a cymbal.

Articulation (the syllables of jazz)

• "Doo" = long tied note, "dah" = long accented note, "dit" = short note, "bop" = short accented note.
• Lengths: the eighth note on the downbeat is often tied to the following upbeat; the eighth note on the upbeat is accented.

Microtiming

The rhythm section is the "metronome" (Basie: lightness and precision); the trumpets play "on top of" the beat, the saxes "in" the beat; the whole band must breathe together at the ends of phrases.

Drums

Principle

The big band drummer is the orchestra's rhythmic director: keeping time for 17 people, reading the score (or the drum part with the kicks marked above the staff), preparing and underlining the band's accents, and shaping the dynamics of the arrangement. Models: Jo Jones, Sonny Payne, Mel Lewis, Buddy Rich, Louie Bellson, Butch Miles, Peter Erskine, John Riley, Ray Marchica.

Ride and hi-hat

Spang-a-lang ride as the foundation; hi-hat on 2 and 4; half-open hi-hat for the more driving choruses.

Bass drum

Light feathering in quarter notes (Basie style) or accents only; the horns' kicks are "caught" with the bass drum (short notes) or bass drum + crash (long notes).

Snare

Comping for the backgrounds, set-ups before the kicks (one hit on the "&" or two sixteenth notes), rolls and accents on the shout chorus.

Cymbals

Crash or crash-ride for the long notes of the tutti, choked cymbal for the short notes of the endings.

Dynamics and velocity

Theme and solos: medium dynamics; backgrounds: lighter; shout chorus: loud but controlled; ballad: brushes, soft. The drums must not "cover" the band, but drive it.

Interaction

With the double bass: a single pulse in quarter notes. With the brass: kicks and set-ups. With the soloist: comping as in a combo.

Sections

Intro (often with kicks), theme (saxes or brass), solos with backgrounds, section soli (light accompaniment), shout chorus (kicks and cymbals), return of the theme, coda (often with a stop and a final roll).

Fills

Short and functional: 1–2 beat set-ups before sections, 1-bar fills before the shout, written drum solos (2–4 bar "drum breaks").

Sounds

Bass drum 20–22" tuned medium-low, 14" snare with prominent wires, toms 12–14–16", ride 20–22", crash 16–18", hi-hat 14".

Typical mistakes

Fills that cover the kicks, a constant rock bass drum, ignoring the written dynamics, playing "like a combo" without supporting the brass.

Bass

Sound

Double bass (amplified in modern big bands) or electric bass on funk and fusion charts.

Role

Walking in quarter notes, two-beat in the themes and intros ("in 2"), pedals in the backgrounds, written lines in unison with the baritone and bass trombone in the tutti passages.

Relationship with the bass drum and low horns

The double bass must stand out among the bass drum, baritone sax, and bass trombone: the arranger leaves space below C2 and the engineer helps with EQ (700 Hz–1 kHz).

Examples

Walter Page (Basie), Jimmy Blanton (Ellington), Ray Brown, John Clayton, Christian McBride (with big band).

Harmonic instruments

• Sax section (AATTB): soli, backgrounds, pads, countermelodies; doublings on flute, clarinet, bass clarinet.
• Trumpet section (4): lead, shouts, backgrounds with mutes (cup, harmon, plunger, straight), flugelhorns on ballads.
• Trombone section (3 tenors + bass): low pads, spread voicings, glissandi, plunger.
• Piano: light comping (Basie style: a few notes in the high register), intros, solos.
• Guitar: comping in quarter notes (Freddie Green) or 3-note chords; solos in the modern big band.
• Vibraphone, Latin percussion, French horns, tuba in some orchestras (Gil Evans, Kenton).

Melody and vocals

Themes and soli

The theme is stated by one section (saxes in unison or harmonized, trumpets with mutes) or by the tutti; the "section soli" (sax soli, brass soli) are harmonized bebop lines written by the arranger.

Soloists

Improvised solos with written backgrounds (sax riffs under the trumpet soloist, etc.).

Voice

Singers with big band (Ella Fitzgerald, Frank Sinatra with Count Basie and Quincy Jones, Michael Bublé today): arrangements built around the voice, with horn fills between the phrases.

Effects and articulations

Fall, doit, scoop, shake (trumpets), growl and plunger "wah-wah" (Ellington: Bubber Miley, Tricky Sam Nanton), uniform section vibrato.

Instruments

• 4–5 trumpets (also flugelhorn), 3–5 trombones (including bass trombone)
• 5 saxophones: 2 altos, 2 tenors, baritone (doublings on flute, clarinet, bass clarinet)
• Piano, guitar, double bass, drums
• Vibraphone, Latin percussion (optional)
• French horn and tuba (Gil Evans, Kenton, modern orchestras)
• Voice

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Piano: Grand piano with close mics to sit on top of the band; comping in the mid-high register.
• B-3 V — Organ: Soul jazz big band (Count Basie with organ, Jimmy Smith with Oliver Nelson's orchestra).
• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: Funk and fusion charts of the '70s (Buddy Rich, Maynard Ferguson, late Thad Jones/Mel Lewis).
• Augmented Strings — Strings: Ballads with strings and "orchestral" arrangements (Nelson Riddle with Sinatra).

Song structure

Typical form of a swing chart

• Intro (4–8): tutti or one section; often with kicks.
• Theme (1 chorus of 32 or 2 of 12): melody in the saxes or in muted trumpets, answers from the other sections.
• Solos (1–4 choruses): soloist with backgrounds (from the second chorus).
• Section soli (sax soli, 1 chorus).
• Shout chorus (1 chorus): tutti at full power, high trumpets, kicks.
• Return of the theme (often just the last A, or the bridge + A).
• Coda: repeated tag, stop, final chord (often a 6/9 or a maj7#11 with trumpet falls).
• Length 3:30–7:00.

Arranging: density and contrast

The arranger alternates unisons and full harmonies, single sections and tutti, low and high dynamics, low and high registers; the densest point is the shout chorus, at 2/3 or 3/4 of the piece.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

A large orchestra that is unified and deep: compact, readable sections, audible leads, a clear but not dominant rhythm section, soloists in front, a shared space. Big bands are often recorded live in the studio with section microphones + spot mics for the soloists + an ambient pair. References: Count Basie — April in Paris, Thad Jones/Mel Lewis — Central Park North, Maria Schneider — Concert in the Garden, Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band. Loudness: −16/−12 LUFS (orchestral jazz), −11/−9 (pop big band or with a singer).

Drums

Overheads (spaced pair) as the main sound: HP 50 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz, ride defined at 3–6 kHz. Bass drum: HP 35 Hz, 60–80 Hz +1/+2 dB, 4 kHz +1 dB (just a bit of attack for the kicks); snare: 200 Hz body, 4–5 kHz; slow bus compression 1–3 dB. Pan according to the stage (often drums slightly right, or center at the back).

Double bass

Mic + DI; HP 40 Hz; 80–100 Hz +1 dB; −3 dB at 200–250 Hz; +2/+3 dB at 700 Hz–1.2 kHz (it must stand out among the baritone and bass trombone); opto 3–4 dB. Center.

Piano and guitar

Piano: HP 50 Hz; −2 dB at 300 Hz; 3 kHz +1 dB; pan 20–40% (left side of the stage). Guitar: HP 120 Hz; 1.5–3 kHz; pan near the piano or opposite it.

Saxophones

One mic per instrument at 30–50 cm (or a pair over the section). HP: altos 120 Hz, tenors 90 Hz, baritone 45 Hz. −2 dB at 350–500 Hz if "boxy"; moderate presence at 2–3 kHz; de-esser for key noise. Sax bus: 2:1 compression, 1–2 dB (opto). Fan-shaped pan across the front (e.g. bari −40%, tenor 2 −25%, alto 2 −10%, alto 1 0/+5%, tenor 1 +20%) following the real seating.

Trombones

Mic at 50–80 cm (ribbon is ideal); HP 60 Hz (bass trombone 40 Hz); 150–300 Hz body; −2 dB at 500 Hz if clogged; 1–2 kHz presence. Bus: 1–2 dB. Pan behind the saxes, wide (−40%…+40%).

Trumpets

Mic at 60–100 cm (ribbon or large-diaphragm condenser for the lead). HP 150 Hz; −2 dB at 1 kHz if "nasal"; watch 2.5–4 kHz (narrow Q, −2/−3 dB if aggressive); bus compression 2 dB. Wide pan, back row: −45%…+45%, lead in the center.

Soloists

Dedicated spot mic (or the section mic raised): +2/+4 dB with automation during the solo; same reverb as the band but a bit more send.

Vocals

HP 80 Hz; −2 dB at 250 Hz; 3 kHz +2 dB; compression 4–6 dB (LA-2A/1176); plate 1.5–2 s, 50 ms pre-delay; center, in front.

FX

One shared hall (1.8–2.6 s, 20–30 ms pre-delay) to "put the orchestra in the room," with higher sends on trumpets and trombones (which sit at the back); short room for the rhythm section.

Buses and groups

Sax bus, trombone bus, trumpet bus, rhythm bus, vocal bus; orchestra bus with 1 dB of glue (2:1, 30 ms attack, auto release).

Sidechain

Never; at most dynamic ducking of the backgrounds from the vocal (1 dB).

Master

Chain: EQ (HP 25 Hz) – compressor 1.5:1, 1 dB – limiter. Target −14/−12 LUFS integrated for the instrumental big band, −10/−9 with a pop singer; true peak −1 dBTP. Respect the difference between the quiet chorus and the shout (8–12 LU short-term).

Common mistakes

Aggressive trumpets at 3 kHz that "scratch," trombones muddy at 200–400 Hz, inaudible double bass, sections too separate (they don't sound like one orchestra), a limiter that squashes the shout chorus, illogical panning relative to the stage.

Reference tracks for the mix

Count Basie — April in Paris; Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra — Central Park North; Buddy Rich — Channel One Suite; Maria Schneider — Cerulean Skies; Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band — Count Bubba.

Reference listening

• Duke Ellington — Ko-Ko (1940)
• Woody Herman — Four Brothers (1947)
• Stan Kenton — Artistry in Rhythm (1943)
• Count Basie — April in Paris (1955)
• Duke Ellington — Diminuendo and Crescendo in Blue (Newport, 1956)
• Count Basie — Li'l Darlin' (The Atomic Mr. Basie, 1957)
• Miles Davis & Gil Evans — Miles Ahead (1957)
• Thad Jones/Mel Lewis Orchestra — Central Park North (1969)
• Buddy Rich — Channel One Suite (1968)
• Maria Schneider Orchestra — Cerulean Skies (2007)
• Gordon Goodwin's Big Phat Band — Count Bubba (2008)