Fusion

History and character

Fusion (jazz-rock, jazz-funk) emerged in the United States in the late 1960s from the meeting of jazz improvisation and harmony on one side and rock, funk, and R&B on the other, with electric instruments and rock amplification. The term already appears in 1968; the decisive step is Miles Davis: "In a Silent Way" (1969) and "Bitches Brew" (recorded in 1969, released in 1970, about 400,000 copies in its first year), with Wayne Shorter, Joe Zawinul, Chick Corea, Herbie Hancock, John McLaughlin, Dave Holland, Jack DeJohnette, and Tony Williams. Almost contemporary: the Tony Williams Lifetime ("Emergency!", 1969, with McLaughlin and Larry Young on organ).

The 1970s are the golden age: Weather Report (from 1970, Joe Zawinul and Wayne Shorter, later Jaco Pastorius; "Birdland", 1977), Mahavishnu Orchestra (McLaughlin, from 1971, "The Inner Mounting Flame"; Jan Hammer, a pioneer of the solo Minimoog), Return to Forever (Chick Corea with Stanley Clarke and Al Di Meola), Herbie Hancock ("Head Hunters", 1973, funk and synths), the Brecker Brothers (funk with virtuosic horns), Billy Cobham, Jean-Luc Ponty, George Duke, Stanley Clarke. In the 1980s fusion becomes smoother and more melodic (Pat Metheny Group, Yellowjackets, Chick Corea Elektric Band, Steps Ahead, Allan Holdsworth, Scott Henderson and Tribal Tech, Casiopea and T-Square in Japan) and part of it flows into smooth jazz.

Since the 2000s there has been a revival: Snarky Puppy, Hiromi, Tigran Hamasyan, Vulfpeck (the funk side), the gospel-jazz-fusion scene, and the "chops" drummers (Nate Smith, Robert "Sput" Searight). Defining traits: electric guitars, electric bass (fretless), electric pianos, organs, and synthesizers in place of piano and upright bass; rock or funk grooves instead of swing; simple vamps alternating with complex progressions, odd meters (7/8, 5/4, 11/8), virtuosity, and long solos.

Scales and keys

Dorian (the funk minor vamp)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — T S T T T S T. On E: E F# G A B C# D.
• Characteristic note: the major 6th (C#). Chords: Em9, F#m7, Gmaj7, A13, Bm7, C#ø, Dmaj7.
• Use: i9–IV13 vamps (Chameleon in Bb Dorian: Bbm7–Eb7), pentatonic solos over them.
• Example: Herbie Hancock — Chameleon; Miles Davis — So What (the modal root of jazz-rock).

Lydian dominant (Mixolydian #11)

• Formula: 1 2 3 #4 5 6 b7 — T T T S T S T. On D: D E F# G# A B C.
• Characteristic note: #11 (G#) over a dominant chord: a "suspended and bright" sound that doesn't ask to resolve.
• Origin: 4th mode of melodic minor (A melodic minor: A B C D E F# G#).
• Use: D7#11 / D13#11 vamps, bII7 in cadences, Weather Report and Chick Corea themes.

Altered (Super Locrian)

• Formula: 1 b9 #9 3 #11 b13 b7. On E: E F G G# A# C D (= F melodic minor).
• Characteristic note: all the altered tensions: E7alt, E7#9 (the "Hendrix chord" is E7#9 = E G# D G).
• Use: tense V7 chords before tonal centers, rock riffs on 7#9.

Melodic minor and its modes

• On A: A B C D E F# G#. Characteristic note: major 6th and 7th over a minor chord (AmMaj9).
• Use: "modern" lines by Brecker, Corea, Holdsworth; derived triads and four-note chords.

Pentatonics and blues

• Minor pentatonic on E: E G A B D; blues: + Bb. Use: rock-jazz solos (McLaughlin, Scofield, Di Meola), bass riffs.
• Shifted pentatonics: over Em7 play B minor pentatonic (B D E F# A) to highlight the 9 and 11.

Symmetric scales

• Half-whole diminished on G: G Ab Bb B C# D E F (G7b9 13). Whole-half: for dim7.
• Whole-tone on C: C D E F# G# A# (C7#5, C9#5).
• Use: "outside" lines and fast passages (Brecker, Holdsworth, Pastorius).

Phrygian dominant (Latin-Spanish color)

• On F#: F# G A# B C# D E. Characteristic note: b2 with a major 3rd. Use: over the V7 of minor keys (F#7 → Bm in Chick Corea — Spain), Al Di Meola (flamenco-fusion).

How to choose

Harmony

Two harmonic worlds

1. Modal/funk vamps (one or two chords for many minutes: Chameleon, Bitches Brew).
2. Complex progressions with slash chords, upper structures, modulations by thirds, non-functional harmony (Weather Report, Corea, Metheny).

Typical chords

• Slash chords and upper structures: D/C (= C maj7#11 Lydian), Bb/C (= C11), E/F (= Fmaj7#11#9), triads over bass notes.
• Sus and quartal chords.
• 7#9, 7#11, 13#11, maj7#5.
• Bass pedal under moving chords.

Movements

• Motion by major thirds (Cmaj7–Abmaj7–Emaj7) and by half step.
• Planing (parallel chords).
• Modulations to distant centers in the heads.
• bVI–bVII–I (rock).

Voicings

Rhodes and synths with quartals and clusters, guitar with triads on the high strings and "open" chords, fretless bass playing harmonics and chords (Jaco).

Harmonic rhythm

Very variable: 32-bar vamps or one chord every 2 beats in the heads.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Feel

Straight eighths and sixteenths (rock and funk) instead of swing, with an occasional light sixteenth-note swing in jazz-funk (55%). Backbeat on 2 and 4, but with a highly syncopated kick, displaced accents, polyrhythms, and odd meters (Mahavishnu: 7/8, 9/8, 11/8; Dave Brubeck and Don Ellis as forerunners).

Typical grooves

Sixteenth-note funk (Head Hunters, Harvey Mason), sixteenth-note shuffle (Birdland, Jeff Porcaro), songo and Latin-fusion (Weather Report, Chick Corea), heavy rock (Billy Cobham), linear drumming (Dave Weckl, Steve Gadd).

Interplay

Drums, bass, and keyboards improvise together inside the groove: group accents (hits), long and fast unisons in the heads.

Microtiming

More precise and "on the grid" than acoustic jazz, but with ghost notes and small anticipations; in funk pieces the bass pushes.

Drums

Principle

Fusion drumming combines the vocabulary of funk and rock (backbeat, ghost notes, syncopated kick) with the freedom of jazz (comping, melodic fills, polyrhythms). Reference drummers: Tony Williams, Billy Cobham, Lenny White, Harvey Mason, Steve Gadd, Peter Erskine, Dave Weckl, Vinnie Colaiuta, Dennis Chambers, and today Mark Guiliana and Nate Smith.

Kick

Highly syncopated in sixteenths (pos. 1, 4, 7, 11, 14…), often in unison with the electric bass; double kick in heavy jazz-rock (Cobham).

Snare

Backbeat on 2 and 4 with dense ghost notes; accents displaced onto the "a" of 2 or the "and" of 4; rimshots.

Hi-hat and cymbals

Sixteenth notes on the hi-hat with openings on the upbeats; ride in eighths or sixteenths; china and splash for accents; "pedal" hi-hat on 2 and 4 or on the quarter notes (Gadd).

Toms

Long, melodic fills, linear drumming (no two limbs sound at the same time).

Percussion

Congas, timbales, cowbell, shaker (Airto Moreira with Miles and Weather Report).

Dynamics and velocity

Very wide: ghost notes 20–40, backbeat 110–127, ride 80–100. Crescendo during the solos.

Interaction

Bass and kick in unison in the grooves; drums responding to the soloists' phrases; written group hits.

Sections

Head: a defined groove with hits; solos: crescendo with fills; bridge: change of meter or feel (from funk to swing or songo); ending: fast unison.

Fills

Long and "speaking", often on the toms with odd groupings (5 or 7 sixteenth notes) that cross the bar lines.

Sounds

Big kit (1970s–80s: many toms, bright cymbals), medium-high tunings, crispy snare; in the 1980s triggers and reverbs.

Typical mistakes

Playing too many notes without groove, odd meters that "limp", ghost notes and accents all at the same velocity, fills that cover the head.

Bass

Sound

Electric bass (Fender Jazz Bass, also fretless: Jaco Pastorius), later 5- and 6-string (Anthony Jackson, John Patitucci); slap (Stanley Clarke, Marcus Miller); synth bass (Minimoog in Head Hunters, Paul Jackson + ARP).

Role

Syncopated sixteenth-note funk grooves, melodic lines, unisons with the heads, artificial harmonics and chords (Jaco: "Portrait of Tracy"), pedals and ostinatos in the vamps.

Notes

Root and octave, chromaticism, arpeggios of the extensions (9, 11, 13), continuous sixteenth-note lines (Jaco — Teen Town).

Relationship with the kick

In unison in funk grooves; in more open pieces the bass is free.

Harmonic instruments

• Fender Rhodes (Hancock, Corea, Zawinul): chords with tremolo, phaser, and wah.
• Synths: Minimoog, ARP 2600 and Odyssey, Oberheim, Prophet-5, Synclavier (Pat Metheny), Yamaha DX7 in the 1980s.
• Hammond organ (Larry Young, Brian Auger).
• Electric guitar (McLaughlin, Di Meola, Metheny with the Roland GR-300 synth guitar, Holdsworth, Scofield).
• Clavinet in jazz-funk.
• Acoustic piano in "acoustic" fusion (Corea).

Melody and vocals

Heads

Long, virtuosic unison themes (sax+synth, guitar+violin), often with leaps and chromaticism, or simple, singable melodies over complex grooves (Birdland).

Improvisation

Shifted pentatonics, bebop lines over rock rhythms, symmetric scales, synths used as solo instruments (Jan Hammer, Chick Corea, Zawinul), distorted guitar with rock technique.

Vocals

Rare: Flora Purim (Return to Forever), Al Jarreau, the vocalese of Manhattan Transfer on Birdland; vocoder and talk box.

Effects

Wah, phaser, flanger, delay, distortion on guitar, Rhodes, and horns (Miles Davis with the electrified trumpet and wah on Bitches Brew).

Instruments

• Drums, percussion (congas, cowbell, berimbau, cuíca)
• Electric bass (also fretless), synth bass
• Electric guitar (also synth guitar)
• Fender Rhodes, Clavinet, Hammond organ
• Synths (Minimoog, ARP, Oberheim, Prophet, DX7)
• Soprano and tenor sax, trumpet (often with effects), electric violin
• Piano

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: The main sound of fusion: stereo tremolo, slow phaser (Phase 90) or wah; light drive for funk comping.
• Mini V — Lead and bass: Jan Hammer/Chick Corea-style lead with glide 50–100 ms and pitch bend; Head Hunters-style bass with a closed filter and fast envelope.
• ARP 2600 V — Lead and texture: Zawinul and Hancock: leads with synced oscillators, resonant filter, effects.
• Clavinet V — Clavinet: Jazz-funk riffs with wah and phaser (Head Hunters).
• B-3 V — Organ: Larry Young and Tony Williams Lifetime: drawbars 888000000, fast Leslie and overdrive.
• Prophet-5 V — Pad and lead: 1980s fusion (late Weather Report, Yellowjackets): synced pads and leads with poly-mod.
• Synclavier V — Pad and synth guitar: The 1980s "Metheny" sound: bright additive-FM pads, leads with a soft attack.
• DX7 V — E-piano and bell: E.Piano 1 and the bells of 1980s fusion.

Song structure

Forms

• Vamp with solos (Chameleon, Bitches Brew): groove intro, head, long solo sections over the vamp, head, outro. 7–15 minutes.
• Sectional composed piece (Weather Report, RTF, Metheny): Intro – Theme A – Theme B – Interlude – Solos over different forms – Reprise – Coda. 5–10 minutes.
• 1980s "song-form" fusion: Intro (8) – A (16) – B (8) – A – Solo (32) – A – Coda.

Arrangement

Electric layers that enter progressively (bass, drums, Rhodes, synth), head unisons, sections with a change of meter, a climax with the whole band; bridges with "stops" and hits.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

A "rock band with a jazz soul" mix: powerful, defined drums, full and articulate electric bass, wide keyboards and synths, soloists up front, lively dynamics. References: Weather Report — Birdland, Herbie Hancock — Chameleon, Chick Corea Elektric Band, Snarky Puppy (live-in-studio recordings). Loudness: −14/−11 LUFS integrated for classic fusion, −11/−9 for modern productions.

Kick

HP 30 Hz; 55–75 Hz +2 dB; 300–400 Hz −3 dB; 3–4 kHz +2 dB; compression 4:1 3–4 dB attack 15–25 ms; light gate. Center.

Snare

HP 80 Hz; 180–220 Hz +2 dB; 500 Hz −2 dB; 5 kHz +2 dB; compression 4:1 3–5 dB; parallel for the ghost notes; plate 1–1.4 s pre-delay 15 ms.

Toms and cymbals

Toms: HP 60–80 Hz, body 100–150 Hz (floor) / 200–300 Hz (rack), attack 4 kHz, gate or expander; pan according to the kit. Overheads: HP 150 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz, air 10–12 kHz; well-defined ride.

Percussion

HP 150 Hz, pan 40–70%, short room.

Electric bass

HP 30 Hz; 60–100 Hz +2 dB; 250 Hz −2 dB; 800 Hz–1.2 kHz +2 dB (articulation, essential for fretless); 2–3 kHz for slap; compression 4:1 4–6 dB (opto + FET); light chorus on fretless only above 300 Hz. Center.

Rhodes, synths, guitars

• Rhodes: HP 60–80 Hz; −2 dB at 300 Hz; presence 2–3 kHz; stereo tremolo; compression 2–3 dB; wide 60–100%.
• Synth lead: HP 150 Hz; dotted-eighth delay 15–20%; plate/hall 1.5–2 s; level automation.
• Pad: HP 200 Hz; wide; dynamic sidechain from the lead soloist (1–2 dB).
• Guitar: HP 100 Hz; 2–4 kHz presence; stereo delay and chorus (1980s); pan 30–60% if rhythm, center if solo.

Horns and violin

Sax/trumpet: HP 80–100 Hz; −2 dB at 400 Hz; presence 2–3 kHz; compression 3 dB; plate 1.5 s; tempo-synced delay on solos. Electric violin: HP 150 Hz; −2 dB at 2–3 kHz if harsh.

FX

Common hall or plate, tempo-synced delay for the soloists, chorus and phaser as period effects.

Buses and groups

Drum bus (SSL 4:1, 2–3 dB, parallel), keyboard bus (1–2 dB), mix bus (1 dB glue).

Sidechain

None audible.

Master

Chain: EQ (HP 25 Hz) – compressor 2:1 1–2 dB – tape/light saturation – limiter. Target −13/−10 LUFS integrated, true peak −1 dBTP; keep the dynamics between head and climax.

Common mistakes

Rhodes and guitar overlapping at 1–3 kHz, fretless bass that disappears (lacking mids), synth leads too loud, long rock reverbs on the drums, a crushed master that kills the ghost notes.

Reference tracks for mixing

Weather Report — Birdland; Herbie Hancock — Chameleon; Pat Metheny Group — Phase Dance; Chick Corea Elektric Band — Got a Match?; Snarky Puppy — Lingus.

Reference listening

• Miles Davis — In a Silent Way (1969)
• Tony Williams Lifetime — Emergency! (1969)
• Miles Davis — Pharaoh's Dance (Bitches Brew, 1970)
• Mahavishnu Orchestra — Birds of Fire (1973)
• Herbie Hancock — Chameleon (1973)
• Return to Forever — Spain (Light as a Feather, 1973)
• Weather Report — Birdland (1977)
• Jaco Pastorius — Teen Town (1977)
• Pat Metheny Group — Are You Going with Me? (1982)
• Snarky Puppy — Lingus (2014)