Samba

History and character

Samba was born between the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the Afro-Brazilian communities of Bahia, with roots in West and Central African traditions (especially Bantu) and in rural forms such as the samba de roda (declared UNESCO Intangible Heritage in 2005). With the migration of many Bahians to Rio de Janeiro, the houses of the 'tias' such as Tia Ciata, in the Praça Onze area, became meeting places where urban samba took shape alongside choro and maxixe. "Pelo Telefone", recorded by Donga in 1916 and released on a 78 rpm record in January 1917, is considered the starting point of samba as a recorded genre (although the title of 'first samba' is disputed).

In the late 1920s the Estácio neighborhood produced a more syncopated style suited to the carnival march: Ismael Silva, among the founders of Deixa Falar, coined the term 'escola de samba'; in 1929 Zé Espinguela organized the first competition between schools (Deixa Falar, Mangueira, Oswaldo Cruz/Portela). The great authors followed — Pixinguinha, Noel Rosa, Cartola, Sinhô, Ary Barroso ("Aquarela do Brasil", 1939) — along with performers such as Carmen Miranda and Mário Reis. Samba multiplied into subgenres: samba-enredo (of the schools, at carnival), samba-canção (slow and romantic), samba de breque, samba-choro, samba-exaltação, partido alto (improvised), sambalanço, samba-rock (Jorge Ben), samba-jazz, bossa nova, pagode (1980s, Fundo de Quintal, with banjo, tantã and repique de mão; then Zeca Pagodinho and the pagode romântico of the 1990s), samba-reggae (Bahia, Olodum). In 2007 IPHAN recognized Carioca samba (samba de terreiro, partido alto, samba-enredo) as Brazilian cultural heritage.

Aesthetics: duple meter (2/4) with the pulse of the surdo (accent on the second beat), a bed of syncopated, 'swaying' sixteenth notes (caixa, tamborim, pandeiro, chocalho), the cavaquinho 'scratching' the chords in syncopated figures, the 7-string violão with its bass lines (baixarias), collective singing and call-and-response, and tonal harmony with secondary dominants.

Scales and keys

Major (Ionian)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 — W W H W W W H (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 2 1)
• Example in C: C D E F G A B
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) and the major 3: brightness and a strong V–I resolution
• Diatonic triads: C (I) – Dm (ii) – Em (iii) – F (IV) – G (V) – Am (vi) – Bdim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Cmaj7 (Imaj7) – Dm7 (ii7) – Em7 (iii7) – Fmaj7 (IVmaj7) – G7 (V7) – Am7 (vi7) – Bm7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: samba is mostly in major with functional harmony: I–VI7–ii–V7, secondary dominants, minor iv. Melodies with many syncopations and anticipations, repeated notes.
• Real-world example: Ary Barroso — Aquarela do Brasil (1939) and countless sambas-enredo are in major with a VI7–ii–V7 turnaround.
• Common mistakes: melodies on the downbeat: samba melody constantly anticipates (it enters on the sixteenth note before the beat).

Harmonic minor

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 7 — W H W W H 1½W H (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 3 1)
• Example in A: A B C D E F G#
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) in minor and the augmented second b6–7: dramatic tension, a 'Middle Eastern/Andalusian' flavor
• Diatonic triads: Am (i) – Bdim (ii°) – Caug (III+) – Dm (iv) – E (V) – F (VI) – G#dim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Am(maj7) (i(maj7)) – Bm7b5 (iiø7) – Cmaj7#5 (III+maj7) – Dm7 (iv7) – E7 (V7) – Fmaj7 (VImaj7) – G#dim7 (vii°7)
• Use in the genre: minor-key sambas (very common in Cartola's sambas and in samba-canção): i–iiø–V7–i, IV7 and VI, modulation to the relative or parallel major.
• Real-world example: Cartola — As Rosas Não Falam (1976) is a minor-key samba with rich harmony and modulations.
• Common mistakes: neglecting the leading tone in the 7-string lines: baixarias often use the harmonic minor scale going up.

Melodic minor (jazz)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 7 — W H W W W W H (semitones 2 1 2 2 2 2 1)
• Example in D: D E F G A B C#
• Characteristic note: major 6 and 7 over a minor third: an elegant, jazzy, ascending minor
• Diatonic triads: Dm (i) – Em (ii) – Faug (III+) – G (IV) – A (V) – Bdim (vi°) – C#dim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Dm(maj7) (i(maj7)) – Em7 (ii7) – Fmaj7#5 (III+maj7) – G7 (IV7) – A7 (V7) – Bm7b5 (viø7) – C#m7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: in the lines of the 7-string violão and cavaquinho that rise toward the minor tonic, and over the i6 chords of samba-jazz.
• Real-world example: the baixarias of choro and samba (Dino 7 Cordas) mix harmonic and melodic minor.
• Common mistakes: using it as a color in the backing-vocal melodies: it stays instrumental.

Mixolydian

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 — W W H W W H W (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 1 2)
• Example in G: G A B C D E F
• Characteristic note: the b7 over a major base: an 'earthy', festive major, without a leading tone
• Diatonic triads: G (I) – Am (ii) – Bdim (iii°) – C (IV) – Dm (v) – Em (vi) – F (VII)
• Seventh chords: G7 (I7) – Am7 (ii7) – Bm7b5 (iiiø7) – Cmaj7 (IVmaj7) – Dm7 (v7) – Em7 (vi7) – Fmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: in samba-enredo and partido alto, melodies over the prolonged dominant (V7), and some 'Northeastern' refrões use the b7.
• Real-world example: many partido alto refrões and sambas de roda over I–V7 vamps.
• Common mistakes: confusing the V7 with the I: the V7 is tension to be resolved.

Major pentatonic

• Formula: 1 2 3 5 6 — W W 1½W W 1½W (semitones 2 2 3 2 3)
• Example in C: C D E G A
• Characteristic note: no semitones: 3 and 6 without 4 and 7, a sunny, African/folk sound, always consonant
• Use in the genre: the choruses (refrões) sung in unison by the audience and the schools: simple, pentatonic, repeated phrases.
• Real-world example: the choruses of sambas-enredo, designed for thousands of people singing as they parade.
• Common mistakes: a refrão that is too chromatic or has difficult leaps.

How to choose among the genre's scales

• Festive samba, enredo, pagode → major with secondary dominants.
• Samba-canção, Cartola, melancholic sambas → harmonic minor with modulations.
• Baixarias, choro, samba-jazz → melodic minor and chromaticism.
• Collective choruses → major pentatonic.

Harmony

Harmonic function

European-derived functional tonal harmony (via choro and modinha): I–VI7–ii–V7, ii–V7–I, chained secondary dominants (III7–VI7–II7–V7), minor iv, passing diminished chords, modulations to the relative or parallel key between verse and chorus. Harmonic rhythm of 1–2 chords per bar of 2/4.

Formulas

• Turnaround I–VI7–ii–V7 (C–A7–Dm7–G7).
• Chain of dominants (E7–A7–D7–G7–C).
• I–I7–IV–iv (C–C7–F–Fm): typical modal borrowing.
• Minor cadence i–iiø–V7–i.

Voicing

• Cavaquinho: 4-voice chords in tight, high positions, played with a pick in syncopated figures.
• Violão (6 and 7 strings): full chords and baixarias (bass counterpoint on the 7th string, tuned to C or B).
• Winds and backing vocals in thirds.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Feel

2/4 meter, felt 'in two' with a strong accent on the second beat (the surdo de primeira). Above it, a continuous bed of 'swaying' sixteenth notes (not triplets, but slightly irregular: the second and fourth sixteenth of each beat are a little late, the so-called 'Brazilian swing', 5–15%).

Timelines

• Teleco-teco / partido alto: a two-bar syncopated figure of the tamborim and cavaquinho (in 3:2 or 2:3 clave, terms that are not traditional in Brazil).
• Agogô: two-tone bell with 'samba 3:2' figures (see clave).

Batucada (samba school)

• Surdo de primeira (marcação) on 2, surdo de segunda on 1, surdo de terceira (cortador) with syncopated figures.
• Caixa (snare) in sixteenth notes with accents; repinique calling the sections; tamborim with teleco-teco; chocalho in sixteenth notes; cuíca with rhythmic 'laments'; agogô.

Pagode

A more relaxed groove: tantã (hand-played surdo), repique de mão, pandeiro, banjo and cavaquinho.

Drums

Roles (batucada) in one bar of 2/4 (8 sixteenth notes)

• Surdo de primeira (low, marcação): open stroke on 2 (sixteenth note 5); surdo de segunda: stroke on 1; together they make the 'tum… TUM' (the accent is on 2). In the r-samba pattern: kick lane = surdo de primeira, toml = surdo de segunda, tomh = surdo de terceira (cortador) with syncopated figures.
• Caixa (snare): continuous sixteenth notes with accents on the 1st and 4th sixteenth of each beat or 'x.xx' figures (snare lane).
• Tamborim: two-bar teleco-teco or sixteenth notes with a 'virada' (rotation of the tamborim) (rim lane).
• Chocalho / ganzá: continuous sixteenth notes (shaker lane), accent on the 2nd and 4th.
• Repinique: calls (chamadas) and fills to change section.
• Agogô: two-tone bell in a 2-bar figure.
• Cuíca: offbeat laments.

Pandeiro (small-group samba, pagode)

Continuous sixteenth notes alternating thumb (low), fingers and palm, with the low stroke on 2 and jingles on the sixteenth notes.

Drum set (modern samba, MPB)

• Kick on 1 and 2 (in 2/4) with an accent on 2 (like the surdo), hi-hat in sixteenth notes with accents, cross-stick snare on the partido alto, toms for the surdo.

Dynamics and microtiming

• Strong accents on 2 (surdo) and on the 'swaying' sixteenth notes; lots of continuous energy.
• The sixteenth notes are not perfectly even: program with a slight swing (5–15%) or shift sixteenth notes 2 and 4 by hand by +5/+10 ms.

Interaction with bass and voice

• The bass/7-string violão plays with the surdo (1 and 2), with baixarias in the gaps; the cavaquinho plays the partido alto.
• The voice and backing vocals lean on the syncopated accents.

By section

• Intro: call from the repinique or cavaquinho.
• Verse: batucada or pagode at medium dynamics.
• Refrão: everyone, backing vocals.
• Paradinha (samba school): choreographic breaks in which the sections stop and restart on the mestre's signal.

Typical mistakes

• Accenting the surdo on 1: samba accents 2.
• Quantized, rigid sixteenth notes.
• A rock drum set in place of the surdo.

Bass

• 7-string violão: the baixarias, contrapuntal bass lines on the low string (C or B), with scales, chromaticism and arpeggios linking the chords.
• Electric bass/upright bass (modern samba, pagode): surdo figure (note on 1 and on 2, with an accent on 2), root and fifth, anticipations on the sixteenth note before the beat, fills in the gaps.
• Range: B0–D3 (the 7-string tuned to B goes down to B1/C2).
• Example on C–A7–Dm7–G7: C2 (1) G1 (2) | A1 (1) E2 (2) | D2 (1) A1 (2) | G1 (1) B1–C2 (passing).

Harmonic instruments

• Cavaquinho: small 4-string guitar, high chords in syncopated figures (partido alto), solos in choro.
• Violão (6 and 7 strings): harmony and baixarias.
• Banjo (pagode): tuned like the cavaquinho, a more metallic sound.
• Piano, Rhodes in samba-jazz and MPB.
• Winds (trumpet, trombone, sax, flute) in gafieira samba and orchestras.

Melody and vocals

Voice

• Syncopated melodies with many anticipations; medium range; open, warm voice (Beth Carvalho, Clara Nunes, Zeca Pagodinho) or lyrical (samba-canção).
• Call-and-response: the puxador (the school's singer) leads, the chorus answers.
• Partido alto: improvised verses between one refrão and the next.

Backing vocals

• Mass choruses (samba school, roda) in unison or in thirds; repeated refrões.

Melodic instruments

Cavaquinho, flute, sax, trombone in intros and interludes.

Instruments

• Surdo (1st, 2nd, 3rd), caixa, repinique, tamborim, chocalho/ganzá, agogô, cuíca, pandeiro, tantã, repique de mão
• Cavaquinho, banjo, violão (6 and 7 strings)
• Electric bass, upright bass
• Piano, Rhodes, winds (gafieira), flute
• Voice (puxador), backing vocals

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Stage-73 V — Samba-jazz Rhodes: Syncopated ninth chords for the samba-jazz and samba-rock of the '60s–'70s.
• Piano V — Samba piano: Syncopated comping in the partido alto style.
• Wurli V — Samba-rock electric piano: The color of Jorge Ben and samba-rock.
• B-3 V — Samba-rock organ: 1970s organ for samba-rock and sambalanço.
• Augmented Strings — Strings for samba-canção: String pads for slow, romantic sambas.

Song structure

Typical form (≈ 3:00–5:00; samba-enredo in the parade can repeat for over 60 minutes)

Samba-enredo

Two parts (primeira and segunda) and two refrões (do meio and principal), repeated throughout the parade; the lyrics tell the school's theme ('enredo').

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Collective, bright energy: rich percussion spread across the stereo field, deep and clear surdo on 2, bright cavaquinho, voice and backing vocals up front. Samba de roda and pagode sound like a group in a circle; samba-enredo like a battery of hundreds of percussionists. References: Cartola — As Rosas Não Falam, Beth Carvalho — Vou Festejar, Zeca Pagodinho — Deixa a Vida Me Levar, Martinho da Vila.

Surdo / tantã

• HP 35–40 Hz, body 60–90 Hz (+2/+3 dB), −3 dB at 300–400 Hz, attack 1–2 kHz (+1 dB); 3:1 compression (2–3 dB). Mono/center.

Caixa, tamborim, repinique

• Caixa: HP 150 Hz, +2 dB at 3–5 kHz, fast 4:1 compression; pan −20.
• Tamborim: HP 400 Hz, +2 dB at 3 kHz; pan +30.
• Repinique: HP 150 Hz, +2 dB at 2–4 kHz; pan −30.

Pandeiro, chocalho, agogô, cuíca

• Pandeiro: HP 100 Hz (the thumb's low end at 150–200 Hz), jingles 6–10 kHz; pan +15.
• Chocalho: HP 1 kHz, pan ±40–60. Agogô: HP 400 Hz, pan −40. Cuíca: HP 200 Hz, pan +40.
• Natural room 1–1.5 s at 15% for the ensemble.

Bass / 7-string violão

• Bass: HP 35 Hz, +2 dB at 80 Hz, −2 dB at 250 Hz; 3:1 compression. Center.
• 7-string: HP 60 Hz, −2 dB at 200 Hz, +2 dB at 3 kHz; pan −20/−30.

Cavaquinho / banjo

• HP 250–300 Hz, −2 dB at 1 kHz if 'nasal', +2 dB at 4–6 kHz; 3:1 compression; pan +20/+30.

Voice and backing vocals

• Voice: HP 90 Hz, −2 dB at 300 Hz, +2/+3 dB at 3 kHz; 4:1 compression (3–5 dB); plate 1.2–1.5 s at 12%.
• Backing vocals: HP 150 Hz, 6 dB of compression, pan ±40–70, longer reverb.

Buses and groups

Percussion bus glue 2:1 (1–2 dB) with light saturation; vocal bus.

Sidechain

None.

Master

• Chain: EQ → bus compression 2:1 (1–2 dB) → limiter −1 dBTP.
• Target: −12/−9 LUFS integrated (modern pagode −9/−8), true peak ≤ −1 dBTP; PLR 10–13 dB.

Common mistakes

• A surdo with no accent on 2 or too 'boomy' (300 Hz).
• Chocalho and caixa filling the whole high end (shrill at 5–8 kHz).
• A buried cavaquinho: it is the harmonic-rhythmic engine.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Cartola — As Rosas Não Falam (1976)
• Beth Carvalho — Vou Festejar (1978)
• Zeca Pagodinho — Deixa a Vida Me Levar (2002)
• Jorge Ben — Mas, Que Nada! (1963)

Reference listening

• Donga — Pelo Telefone (1917)
• Ary Barroso — Aquarela do Brasil (1939)
• Jorge Ben — Mas, Que Nada! (1963)
• Martinho da Vila — Canta Canta, Minha Gente (1974)
• Cartola — As Rosas Não Falam (1976)
• Beth Carvalho — Vou Festejar (1978)
• Zeca Pagodinho — Deixa a Vida Me Levar (2002)