Son cubano

History and character

Son is the matrix of Cuban popular music and, through mambo and salsa, of much modern Latin music. It was born in the late 19th century in the highlands of Cuba's Oriente (Santiago, Guantánamo, Baracoa) from the meeting of Spanish elements (the guitar, the décima, the song) and African ones (above all Bantu: call-and-response, ostinatos, drums), with rural forms such as changüí, nengón, kiribá and regina. Some musicologists (Peter Manuel) link part of its structure to the Havana contradanza.

It arrived in Havana around 1909; in the 1920s the Sexteto Habanero (1920) established the 'classic' ensemble — guitar, tres, bongó, claves, maracas and upright bass (which replaced the marímbula and botija) — and Ignacio Piñeiro's Septeto Nacional added the trumpet ("Échale Salsita", 1933). The Trío Matamoros (1925; Miguel Matamoros, Siro Rodríguez, Rafael Cueto) merged son and bolero (bolero-son) and became famous throughout Latin America. In the 1940s Arsenio Rodríguez, a blind tres player, revolutionized the genre with the conjunto: he added conga, piano, more trumpets and improvised solos and consolidated the son montuno, the direct basis of salsa. Then came Benny Moré, the Conjunto Casino, the Sonora Matancera (with Celia Cruz), the Conjunto Chappottín; in the 1970s son merged into New York salsa and Cuban songo.

In 1997 the album Buena Vista Social Club (produced by Ry Cooder with Juan de Marcos González; Compay Segundo, Ibrahim Ferrer, Rubén González, Omara Portuondo, Eliades Ochoa) and Wim Wenders' film set off a worldwide boom in traditional son; Compay Segundo's "Chan Chan" became a global classic. Typical form: a sung part (largo or canción, often with décimas) followed by the montuno, a cyclical section of chorus and improvised soneo over a tres guajeo; everything is organized by the clave, with the bass anticipating (tumbao).

Scales and keys

Major (Ionian)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 — W W H W W W H (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 2 1)
• Example in C: C D E F G A B
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) and the major 3: brightness and a strong V–I resolution
• Diatonic triads: C (I) – Dm (ii) – Em (iii) – F (IV) – G (V) – Am (vi) – Bdim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Cmaj7 (Imaj7) – Dm7 (ii7) – Em7 (iii7) – Fmaj7 (IVmaj7) – G7 (V7) – Am7 (vi7) – Bm7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: much of son is in major: I–IV–V7 in the largo, I–V7 or I–IV–V–IV vamps in the montuno; the tres plays guajeos in thirds and sixths over the chords.
• Real-world example: Trío Matamoros — Son de la Loma (1920s) and many Septeto Nacional sones are in major with dominant.
• Common mistakes: forgetting the dominant V7: son is tonal and cadences.

Harmonic minor

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 7 — W H W W H 1½W H (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 3 1)
• Example in D: D E F G A Bb C#
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) in minor and the augmented second b6–7: dramatic tension, a 'Middle Eastern/Andalusian' flavor
• Diatonic triads: Dm (i) – Edim (ii°) – Faug (III+) – Gm (iv) – A (V) – Bb (VI) – C#dim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Dm(maj7) (i(maj7)) – Em7b5 (iiø7) – Fmaj7#5 (III+maj7) – Gm7 (iv7) – A7 (V7) – Bbmaj7 (VImaj7) – C#dim7 (vii°7)
• Use in the genre: son in minor and bolero-son: i–iv–V7, leading tone in the melody and the tres; the V7–i cadence is central.
• Real-world example: Compay Segundo — Chan Chan (Buena Vista Social Club, 1997), a minor progression with major V (often performed in D minor: Dm F Gm A).
• Common mistakes: using the b7 over the V chord: it sounds 'modal' and out of style.

Major pentatonic

• Formula: 1 2 3 5 6 — W W 1½W W 1½W (semitones 2 2 3 2 3)
• Example in G: G A B D E
• Characteristic note: no semitones: 3 and 6 without 4 and 7, a sunny, African/folk sound, always consonant
• Use in the genre: montuno coros and soneo phrases: short pentatonic cells, sung in thirds by the chorus.
• Real-world example: the 'call-and-response' coros of the Septeto Nacional and Buena Vista are often phrases of 4–6 notes.
• Common mistakes: a coro that is too long: it must leave room for the soneo.

Natural minor (Aeolian)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7 — W H W W H W W (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 2 2)
• Example in A: A B C D E F G
• Characteristic note: the b6: melancholy; with the b7 (no leading tone) the minor stays 'circular'
• Diatonic triads: Am (i) – Bdim (ii°) – C (III) – Dm (iv) – Em (v) – F (VI) – G (VII)
• Seventh chords: Am7 (i7) – Bm7b5 (iiø7) – Cmaj7 (IIImaj7) – Dm7 (iv7) – Em7 (v7) – Fmaj7 (VImaj7) – G7 (VII7)
• Use in the genre: in the oldest sones and in changüí some melodies oscillate between natural and harmonic minor; the tres improvises using the b7.
• Real-world example: tres improvisations (Arsenio Rodríguez, Eliades Ochoa) often alternate G and G# over Am.
• Common mistakes: making everything Aeolian: in the cadences the leading tone returns.

How to choose among the genre's scales

• Festive son, guaracha → major.
• Romantic son, bolero-son, Chan Chan → harmonic minor.
• Montuno coro → pentatonic.
• Tres improvisation → the mode's scale with chromatic passing notes and arpeggios in thirds.

Harmony

Harmonic function

Tonal: the largo uses I–IV–V7–I cadences, ii–V–I, secondary dominants; the montuno is a vamp of 2–4 chords (I–V7, I–IV–V–IV, i–iv–V7–iv) repeated under the chorus and soneo. Harmonic rhythm: 1 chord per bar, or 2 per bar in the montuno.

Clave and harmony

• Montuno progressions are conceived over two bars in clave (3-2 or 2-3); the bass anticipates the chord on beat 4 of the previous bar.
• The tres or piano guajeo 'draws' the harmony with chord tones and passing notes, aligned with the clave.

Voicing

• Tres: three pairs of strings (often tuned in C: G–C–E with octaves), guajeo in thirds and sixths in the mid-high register.
• Guitar: rasgueo and arpeggios in open position.
• Piano (conjunto): guajeo in octaves.
• Trumpets: 1–3, melodies and answers, harmonized in thirds.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Clave

Son uses the son clave (3-2 or 2-3), usually actually played on the claves. In 4/4 counted in quarter notes, the 3 side: 1, 2&, 4; the 2 side: 2, 3.

Roles

• Bongó: martillo (eighth notes with an open tone on 4) in the largo; bell in the montuno (conjunto).
• Maracas: continuous eighth notes (often played by the singer).
• Claves: the timeline.
• Bass: anticipated tumbao (2& and 4), with the note on 4 tied into the next bar.
• Tres: two-bar guajeo in clave.
• Conga (from Arsenio's conjunto): tumbao.

Feel

Straight, not triplet-based, but with constant anticipation from bass and tres; more relaxed than salsa. The montuno often speeds up slightly.

Drums

Instrumentation

No drum kit: bongó (with campana de mano from the conjunto onward), claves, maracas, güiro in some groups, conga from the 1940s.

Bongó

• Martillo: 8 eighth notes per bar, alternating fingers and thumb on the macho (small drum) and an open tone on the hembra (large drum) on 4 (step 13). The bongo player improvises small 'repiques' at the ends of phrases.
• Campana de mano in the montuno: quarter notes alternating an open stroke on the mouth and a stroke on the body.
• Velocity: martillo 60–80, open tones 100+.

Claves

• Constant 2-3 or 3-2 son clave, dry and high-pitched sound (2–4 kHz), the reference for everyone.

Maracas

• Continuous eighth notes with a light accent on the offbeat.

Conga (conjunto)

• Tumbao: slap on 2, open tones on 4 and 4&.

Interaction

• Bongó + maracas + claves = the 'engine' of son; the bass anticipates, the tres fills with the guajeo.
• The lead vocalist improvises in the montuno; the chorus answers in clave.

By section

• Intro: tres or guitar alone, then everyone.
• Largo: martillo, medium dynamics.
• Montuno: bell, louder conga, coro–soneo, tres and trumpet solos.
• Cierre: unison stop.

Typical mistakes

• Clave in the wrong direction relative to the guajeo and melody.
• Bongó too 'full' in the largo.
• Bass on the 1: son anticipates.

Bass

• Sound: plucked upright bass (originally marímbula, a lamellophone, or botija, a blown jug), round, woody tone; range E1–D3.
• Tumbao: attacks on 2& and 4, with the note on 4 tied into the next 1; the note on 4 is the root of the incoming chord.
• Notes: root and fifth, sometimes the third; short passing figures in the largo.
• Example over C–G7 (montuno): in the C bar the bass plays C2 on 2& and G1 on 4 (a note that anticipates the G7 and ties over the barline); in the G7 bar it plays G1 on 2& and C2 on 4 (anticipation of the returning C).

Harmonic instruments

• Cuban tres: three double courses, metallic and bright sound; two-bar guajeo in clave (chord tones in thirds/sixths, syncopated), improvisations with arpeggios and octaves.
• Guitar: rhythmic accompaniment (rasgueo, syncopated patterns) and harmonic accompaniment.
• Piano (conjunto): guajeo in octaves.
• Trumpet: melodies, answers to the coro and solos; 1 trumpet in the septeto, 2–3 in the conjunto.

Melody and vocals

Voice

• Sonero: natural voice, tenor/baritone register, syncopated phrasing in clave; in the montuno, improvised soneo (inspiraciones) with rhymes and references.
• Décimas and narrative or ironic lyrics in the largo; rural, amorous and patriotic themes.

Coro

• 2–3 voices in thirds (often the guitarist and the maracas player), a fixed phrase of 2–4 bars in the montuno.

Melodic instruments

• Trumpet and tres answer the coro; tres solos in octaves and thirds.

Instruments

• Cuban tres, guitar
• Upright bass (originally marímbula, botija)
• Bongó with campana de mano, claves, maracas, güiro
• Conga and piano (conjunto, 1940s)
• Trumpet (1–3)
• Lead vocalist (sonero), coro

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Conjunto piano: Upright or grand piano with little reverb for the guajeo in octaves.
• Augmented Strings — Accompanying strings: For modern arrangements or orchestral versions of son (used sparingly).
• Stage-73 V — E.piano for son-jazz fusions: For modern reinterpretations and son-jazz.
• Wurli V — 1970s electric piano: For son-pop fusions and 1970s colors.

Song structure

Typical form (≈ 3:30–6:00)

Arrangement

Two distinct parts: largo (narrative, medium dynamics) and montuno (cyclical, intense, improvised). Every phrase in multiples of 2 bars in clave.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Natural, acoustic and intimate: a small group in a room, with tres and vocal up front, warm upright bass, defined but not aggressive percussion, lots of dynamics. References: Buena Vista Social Club (1997, recorded at the EGREM studios in Areito, Havana), Septeto Nacional, Trío Matamoros (reissues), Eliades Ochoa.

Bongó

• HP 120 Hz, body 250 Hz, attack 3–6 kHz (+2 dB); light or no compression. Panning +20/+40.

Claves and maracas

• Claves: HP 800 Hz, −2 dB at 3 kHz if too harsh; panning center or −20. Maracas: HP 1 kHz, panning −40.

Conga and bell (conjunto)

• Conga HP 60 Hz, slap 3 kHz, panning +30; bell HP 500 Hz, panning −20.

Upright bass

• HP 35 Hz, +2 dB at 80–100 Hz, woody presence 700 Hz–1.2 kHz (+1/+2 dB), −2 dB at 250 Hz; opto compression 3:1 (2–3 dB). Mono.

Tres and guitar

• Tres: HP 150 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz, +2 dB at 3–5 kHz (metallic brilliance), light 2:1 compression; panning −20/center.
• Guitar: HP 100 Hz, −2 dB at 250 Hz, +1 dB at 4 kHz; panning +30.
• Natural room 1–1.3 s at 10–15%.

Trumpet

• HP 150 Hz, −2 dB at 500 Hz, presence 3 kHz, dynamic de-esser; plate 1.5 s at 15%; panning −30.

Vocal and coro

• Vocal: HP 80 Hz, −2 dB at 300 Hz, +2 dB at 3 kHz; compression 3:1 (3 dB) + light opto; plate/room 1.2–1.5 s at 12%.
• Coro: panning ±40, −3/−5 dB.

Buses and groups

Very light percussion bus; no aggressive bus compression.

Sidechain

None.

Master

• Chain: light EQ → 1.5:1 compression (≤1 dB) → limiter −1 dBTP.
• Target: −14/−11 LUFS integrated (Buena Vista and acoustic recordings are dynamic), true peak ≤ −1 dBTP; PLR 12–15 dB.

Common mistakes

• Compressing and 'modernizing' the sound: it loses the intimacy.
• Tres too dark: it has to shine.
• Long artificial reverb on an acoustic group.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Buena Vista Social Club — Chan Chan (1997)
• Buena Vista Social Club — El Cuarto de Tula (1997)
• Septeto Nacional de Ignacio Piñeiro — Échale Salsita (1933, reissues)
• Eliades Ochoa — Píntate los Labios María

Reference listening

• Sexteto Habanero — Tres Lindas Cubanas (anni '20)
• Trío Matamoros — Son de la Loma (anni '20)
• Septeto Nacional de Ignacio Piñeiro — Échale Salsita (1933)
• Arsenio Rodríguez — Bruca Maniguá (1937, composta da Arsenio)
• Benny Moré — Castellanos Qué Bueno Baila Usted (anni '50)
• Buena Vista Social Club — Chan Chan (1997)
• Buena Vista Social Club — El Cuarto de Tula (1997)