Caribbean

History and character

The 'Caribbean' family brings together the popular music of the English- and French-speaking Caribbean (the music of the Spanish-speaking Caribbean — Cuba, the Dominican Republic, Puerto Rico — is covered in the Latin family). Its historical center is Jamaica: from mento (acoustic folk of the '40s–'50s) and American R&B heard over the radio came ska (late '50s; Skatalites, Prince Buster, Coxsone Dodd, Duke Reid), which slowed down into rocksteady (1966–1968: Alton Ellis, The Paragons) and became reggae in the late '60s ("Do the Reggay" by Toots and the Maytals, 1968; Bob Marley & the Wailers, Burning Spear, Peter Tosh, Jimmy Cliff, the producers Lee 'Scratch' Perry and King Tubby). Reggae gave rise to dub (instrumental remixes with echo and reverb, King Tubby, late '60s–'70s), dancehall (late '70s, sound systems and deejays; then the digital era from 1985 with "Under Mi Sleng Teng") and the tradition of shared riddims; UNESCO added Jamaican reggae to its intangible heritage list in 2018.

In Trinidad and Tobago, calypso (narrative and satirical singing, steelbands and carnival) gave rise in the '70s to Lord Shorty's soca ('soul of calypso', with Indo-Trinidadian rhythms) and its variants (power, groovy, ragga, chutney soca, bouyon soca). In the French-speaking Caribbean: Haitian kompa (Nemours Jean-Baptiste, 1955, then mini-jazz and Tabou Combo), Dominica's cadence-lypso, and the zouk of the French Antilles (Guadeloupe and Martinique, early '80s, Kassav'), with its zouk love variant, from which Angolan kizomba derives. Other genres: bouyon (Dominica), steelpan, chutney, punta (Garifuna), reggae en español and reggaeton as a bridge to the Latin world.

Common elements: a strong role for the bass (often the melodic protagonist), accent on the offbeat (reggae skank, calypso counter-rhythm), reworked African percussion, sound system and DJ/deejay culture, carnival as the engine of dance music, singing in Creole/patois, satire and social lyrics.

Scales and keys

Major (Ionian)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 — W W H W W W H (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 2 1)
• Example on G: G A B C D E F#
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) and the major 3rd: brightness and a strong V–I resolution
• Diatonic triads: G (I) – Am (ii) – Bm (iii) – C (IV) – D (V) – Em (vi) – F#dim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Gmaj7 (Imaj7) – Am7 (ii7) – Bm7 (iii7) – Cmaj7 (IVmaj7) – D7 (V7) – Em7 (vi7) – F#m7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: ska, rocksteady, lovers rock, calypso, soca, zouk and kompa are mostly in major: I–IV–V, I–vi–IV–V, choruses in thirds and sixths.
• Real-world example: Toots and the Maytals — Pressure Drop (1969), calypso and most soca (check the keys).
• Common mistakes: forgetting the function of the harmony on the offbeat (skank): the offbeat is what makes the chord.

Dorian

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — W H W W W H W (semitones 2 1 2 2 2 1 2)
• Example on A: A B C D E F# G
• Characteristic note: the major 6th over a minor foundation: an 'open' minor, less sad, which gives a major IV
• Diatonic triads: Am (i) – Bm (ii) – C (III) – D (IV) – Em (v) – F#dim (vi°) – G (VII)
• Seventh chords: Am7 (i7) – Bm7 (ii7) – Cmaj7 (IIImaj7) – D7 (IV7) – Em7 (v7) – F#m7b5 (viø7) – Gmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: the 'roots' mode: reggae, dub and a lot of dancehall over an i–IV vamp (Am–D) or i7–IV7; basslines that use the major 6th.
• Real-world example: Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977) and many roots tracks over modal minor vamps (check the key).
• Common mistakes: using the b6 in the bass of a Dorian vamp.

Natural minor (Aeolian)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7 — W H W W H W W (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 2 2)
• Example on E: E F# G A B C D
• Characteristic note: the b6: melancholy; with the b7 (no leading tone) the minor stays 'circular'
• Diatonic triads: Em (i) – F#dim (ii°) – G (III) – Am (iv) – Bm (v) – C (VI) – D (VII)
• Seventh chords: Em7 (i7) – F#m7b5 (iiø7) – Gmaj7 (IIImaj7) – Am7 (iv7) – Bm7 (v7) – Cmaj7 (VImaj7) – D7 (VII7)
• Use in the genre: minor roots reggae (i–VII–VI–VII), digital dancehall (loops of 1–2 chords), dark dub.
• Real-world example: many roots and dancehall riddims over minor i–VII loops.
• Common mistakes: long progressions: the riddim is cyclical.

Minor pentatonic

• Formula: 1 b3 4 5 b7 — 1½W W W 1½W W (semitones 3 2 2 3 2)
• Example on E: E G A B D
• Characteristic note: no half steps: b3 and b7 without the 2 and b6, an open, 'can't go wrong' sound, ideal for riffs and hooks
• Use in the genre: toasting, deejaying, reggae and dub basslines, dancehall hooks.
• Real-world example: the basslines of Aston 'Family Man' Barrett and Robbie Shakespeare are often minor pentatonic.
• Common mistakes: filling the bass with notes: the strength is in the rests.

Mixolydian

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 — W W H W W H W (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 1 2)
• Example on D: D E F# G A B C
• Characteristic note: the b7 over a major foundation: an 'earthy', festive major, with no leading tone
• Diatonic triads: D (I) – Em (ii) – F#dim (iii°) – G (IV) – Am (v) – Bm (vi) – C (VII)
• Seventh chords: D7 (I7) – Em7 (ii7) – F#m7b5 (iiiø7) – Gmaj7 (IVmaj7) – Am7 (v7) – Bm7 (vi7) – Cmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: soca, calypso and festive tracks with I–bVII, horns and steelpan with the b7.
• Real-world example: many soca and calypso tracks with horn riffs that use the b7.
• Common mistakes: treating the bVII as a dominant.

How to choose among the genre's scales

• Ska, rocksteady, lovers rock, calypso, soca, zouk, kompa → major.
• Roots, dub, 'conscious' dancehall → Dorian or Aeolian.
• Bass and toasting → minor pentatonic.
• Soca and carnival → major with Mixolydian colors.

Harmony

Harmonic function

Mostly cyclical: repeated loops of 2–4 chords (I–IV–V, I–vi–IV–V, i–IV, i–VII); in reggae and dancehall the riddim (instrumental backing track) is shared by many singers. Ska and rocksteady have more 'R&B/soul' harmony (I–vi–ii–V, dominants), while zouk and kompa use romantic pop progressions with seventh chords.

Elements

• Skank (staccato chords on the offbeat) in reggae, ska, rocksteady.
• Bubble/shuffle organ (staccato sixteenth-note figures).
• Bass pedal in dub and dancehall.
• Horns in thirds (ska, reggae, soca).

Voicing

Skank guitar on close triads (strings 2–4), organ in the middle register, horns in close voicing; solo bass underneath.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Main concepts

• Offbeat (skank) and one drop (kick and rim on beat 3) in reggae; rockers (kick on every quarter note) and steppers (kick on quarter notes with rim on 3) as variants.
• Shuffle and fast skank in ska; slower rocksteady with the bass up front.
• Dancehall: 3+3+2 figures (boom-ch-boom-chick), syncopated kick.
• Soca: kick on quarter notes, snare with fast figures, continuous cowbell and 'iron'.
• Zouk/kompa: kick on 1 and 3 or on quarter notes, figures derived from the cinquillo, swaying groove.

Swing

Reggae and dub with swing on the sixteenth notes (25–35%); dancehall and soca straighter; ska with a shuffle feel.

Drums

Reggae (one drop)

• Kick and rim only on beat 3 (step 9), hi-hat in eighth/sixteenth notes with swing, opening on the offbeat; tom fills before the section change.

Rockers / steppers

• Rockers: kick on every quarter note with rim on 2 and 4 or on 3; steppers: hammering quarter-note kick with rim on 3 (dub and UK roots).

Ska

• Kick and cross-stick with an accent on 3, hi-hat and skank on the offbeat, shuffle feel.

Dancehall

• Syncopated kick (1, 1a, 2&), snare on 2 and 4 (or 3+3+2), digital percussion.

Soca

• Quarter-note kick, snare on 2 and 4 with fast figures (4, 4a), open hi-hat on the offbeat, cowbell/iron in sixteenth notes.

Zouk and kompa

• Kick on 1 and 3 with anticipations, snare on 2 and 4, bell on the quarter notes, kata/cinquillo on the rim.

Interaction

The bass is the second 'drummer': in reggae and dub the drums leave room for the bass; in soca the drums are the engine of carnival.

Typical mistakes

• Kick on 1 in the one drop.
• Hi-hat without swing in reggae.
• Drums too busy, covering the bass.

Bass

• Reggae/dub: big, dark, round electric bass (highs rolled off), melodic lines of 1–2 bars with rests; the bass is often the main instrument and is also used as percussion.
• Rocksteady: bass up front, often doubled by a muted lead guitar.
• Ska: walking bass in quarter notes with offbeat accents.
• Dancehall: ostinato digital synth bass.
• Soca: synth bass that follows the kick, octaves on the offbeat.
• Zouk/kompa: very melodic, syncopated electric bass.

Harmonic instruments

• Skank guitar, bubble/shuffle organ, piano on the offbeat (reggae, ska, rocksteady).
• Horns (trumpet, trombone, sax) as a three-piece section.
• Steelpan (Trinidad).
• Synths and keyboards (digital dancehall, soca, zouk).
• Two interlocking guitars (kompa), accordion/sax (traditional kompa).

Melody and vocals

Vocals

• Singing in Jamaican patois, Caribbean English, French Creole or Haitian; toasting/deejaying (rhythmic speech) in dancehall and dub.
• Vocal trios in harmony (rocksteady, reggae: The Wailers, The Heptones).
• Call-and-response in calypso and soca (calls to the crowd: 'wave', 'jump').
• Calypso: satirical and narrative lyrics (picong).

Effects

Tape echo and spring reverb (reggae, dub), voices filtered through sound systems, Auto-Tune in modern dancehall.

Instruments

• Drums, drum machine, percussion (nyabinghi, cowbell, iron/brake drum, gwo ka drums, tanbou)
• Electric bass, synth bass
• Skank guitar, organ, piano, synth
• Horns (trumpet, trombone, sax)
• Steelpan
• Vocals, backing vocals, deejay

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• B-3 V — Bubble/shuffle organ: Drawbar 888000000, slow Leslie, staccato sixteenth-note figures on the offbeat.
• DX7 V — Digital keyboards for dancehall and zouk: Basses, brass and '80s FM e.piano.
• CZ V — 'Casio' basses and keyboards: The digital character of the first riddims (Sleng Teng was created on a Casiotone).
• Mini V — Reggae/dub synth bass: Sine/triangle, low LP, medium decay.
• Wurli V — Rocksteady/reggae electric piano: Chords on the offbeat.
• Jup-8 V — Soca/zouk pads and brass: Bright pads and stabs.

Song structure

Typical forms

• Reggae/rocksteady/ska: intro – verse – chorus – verse – chorus – break/dub – chorus – outro (3:00–4:00); often with a 'version' (dub instrumental) on the B-side.
• Dancehall: deejay intro – hook – verse – hook (2:30–3:30), always over shared riddims.
• Soca: intro – verse – build – drop/hook with instructions to the crowd – verse – drop (3:00–4:00).
• Zouk/kompa: intro – verse – chorus – guitar/sax interlude – chorus (4:00–6:00).

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

It depends on the style, but with one common trait: a big, warm bass and close attention to the offbeat. Reggae and dub: dominant bass, dry drums, a clear skank, creative echo and reverbs. Dancehall and soca: a modern, powerful, bright sound built for sound systems and carnival. Zouk and kompa: a '80s–'90s 'radio' sound, clean guitars and soft vocals. References: Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus, King Tubby (dub), Sean Paul — Get Busy, Machel Montano (soca), Kassav' (zouk).

Drums

• Reggae: kick HP 35 Hz, +2 dB at 60–80 Hz; rim HP 300 Hz, +2 dB at 1–2 kHz; hi-hat HP 400 Hz. Little compression; spring/plate on the rim.
• Dancehall/soca: punchier kick (click at 3 kHz), bright snare (+3 dB at 4–5 kHz), compression 4:1.

Bass

• Reggae/dub: HP 30 Hz, emphasis at 50–90 Hz, LP 1.5–3 kHz, opto compression 4:1 (4–6 dB); louder than the kick.
• Dancehall/soca: mono sub, saturation for audibility, sidechain from the kick.

Skank, organ, piano

• Skank: HP 300 Hz, +2 dB at 2–3 kHz, fast compression, panning ±30; organ panned opposite.

Horns and steelpan

• Horns: HP 120 Hz, presence at 2–4 kHz, plate 1.5 s. Steelpan: HP 200 Hz, −2 dB at 1 kHz if 'clangy', +1 dB at 5 kHz; stereo ±40.

Vocals

• HP 90 Hz, −2 dB at 300 Hz, +2/+3 dB at 3 kHz; compression 4:1; reggae with tape echo and spring, dancehall with plate and short delays, soca with a bright vocal and shouts with delay.

Master

• Reggae/dub: −11/−9 LUFS integrated, PLR 9–12 dB. Dancehall/soca: −7/−5 LUFS, PLR 6–8 dB. Zouk/kompa: −10/−8 LUFS. True peak ≤ −1 dBTP.

Common mistakes

• Thin bass or bass with too many highs in reggae.
• Buried skank.
• Dancehall/soca without low-end energy for the sound system.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977)
• King Tubby — dubs from the '70s
• Sean Paul — Get Busy (2003)
• Machel Montano — soca repertoire
• Kassav' — Zouk-la Sé Sèl Médikaman Nou Ni (1984)

Reference listening

• The Skatalites — Guns of Navarone (1965)
• Alton Ellis — Rock Steady (1967)
• Toots and the Maytals — Do the Reggay (1968)
• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977)
• Wayne Smith — Under Mi Sleng Teng (1985)
• Kassav' — Zouk-la Sé Sèl Médikaman Nou Ni (1984)
• Arrow — Hot Hot Hot (1982)
• Sean Paul — Get Busy (2003)