Reggae

History and character

Reggae emerged in Kingston, Jamaica, in the late '60s as an evolution of ska and rocksteady, with influences from mento, R&B, jazz and the Rasta nyabinghi percussion. "Do the Reggay" by Toots and the Maytals (1968) is the first popular song to use the word. The shift from rocksteady to reggae came through the shuffle/bubble organ invented by Jackie Mittoo and Winston Wright, more complex and dominant basslines, a rougher, more percussive rhythm guitar, African hand percussion and tighter drumming; lyrics moved from romance to Black consciousness and politics under the influence of Rastafari. In 1972 the film The Harder They Come (starring Jimmy Cliff) and the records of Bob Marley & the Wailers (with Peter Tosh and Bunny Wailer: Catch a Fire, 1973; Natty Dread, 1974; Exodus, 1977) brought reggae to the world, helped by Chris Blackwell's Island Records.

The roots reggae of the '70s (Burning Spear, Culture, The Abyssinians, Israel Vibration, Max Romeo, Junior Murvin, Gregory Isaacs, Dennis Brown) is tied to Rastafari and Black consciousness; lovers rock (South London, '70s–'80s, with female voices such as Janet Kay) is softer and more commercial. Producers: Lee 'Scratch' Perry (Black Ark), King Tubby, Coxsone Dodd (Studio One), Duke Reid (Treasure Isle), Leslie Kong, Joe Gibbs, Bunny Lee; legendary rhythm sections such as Aston 'Family Man' Barrett and Carlton Barrett (Wailers) and Sly & Robbie (Sly Dunbar and Robbie Shakespeare). Heirs: Steel Pulse, Aswad, UB40 (UK), Third World, Black Uhuru, then Damian Marley, Chronixx, Protoje, Koffee and the reggae revival; very strong reggae scenes exist in Africa (Lucky Dube, Alpha Blondy), Europe, Brazil and Latin America. UNESCO added Jamaican reggae to its Intangible Cultural Heritage list in November 2018.

The one drop, associated with Carlton Barrett, is the most typical reggae drum pattern: kick and rim together on the third beat (the 'drop'), no kick on 1. Together with the skank on the offbeat, the heavy, melodic bass, the bubble organ and the horn section (trumpet, trombone, sax), it creates the characteristic relaxed groove that is 'heavy on the offbeat'.

Scales and keys

Dorian

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — W H W W W H W (semitones 2 1 2 2 2 1 2)
• Example on A: A B C D E F# G
• Characteristic note: the major 6th over a minor foundation: an 'open' minor, less sad, which gives a major IV
• Diatonic triads: Am (i) – Bm (ii) – C (III) – D (IV) – Em (v) – F#dim (vi°) – G (VII)
• Seventh chords: Am7 (i7) – Bm7 (ii7) – Cmaj7 (IIImaj7) – D7 (IV7) – Em7 (v7) – F#m7b5 (viø7) – Gmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: the most 'roots' mode: an i–IV vamp (Am–D) or i7–IV7; the bass and melodies use the major 6th (F#), which makes the minor open and spiritual.
• Real-world example: many roots classics (Burning Spear, The Abyssinians) move over minor vamps with a major IV; Bob Marley — Exodus is a modal minor vamp (check the key).
• Common mistakes: playing the b6 in the bass: it completely changes the color.

Natural minor (Aeolian)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7 — W H W W H W W (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 2 2)
• Example on E: E F# G A B C D
• Characteristic note: the b6: melancholy; with the b7 (no leading tone) the minor stays 'circular'
• Diatonic triads: Em (i) – F#dim (ii°) – G (III) – Am (iv) – Bm (v) – C (VI) – D (VII)
• Seventh chords: Em7 (i7) – F#m7b5 (iiø7) – Gmaj7 (IIImaj7) – Am7 (iv7) – Bm7 (v7) – Cmaj7 (VImaj7) – D7 (VII7)
• Use in the genre: minor roots and 'sad' songs: i–VII–VI–VII, i–iv; chorus harmonies in minor thirds.
• Real-world example: Bob Marley & the Wailers — Natural Mystic, Concrete Jungle (minor moods; check the keys).
• Common mistakes: adding a major V out of habit: minor reggae often uses a minor v or the VII.

Major (Ionian)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 — W W H W W W H (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 2 1)
• Example on G: G A B C D E F#
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) and the major 3rd: brightness and a strong V–I resolution
• Diatonic triads: G (I) – Am (ii) – Bm (iii) – C (IV) – D (V) – Em (vi) – F#dim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Gmaj7 (Imaj7) – Am7 (ii7) – Bm7 (iii7) – Cmaj7 (IVmaj7) – D7 (V7) – Em7 (vi7) – F#m7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: 'sunny' reggae, lovers rock and pop songs: I–IV–V, I–vi–IV–V; choruses in thirds.
• Real-world example: Bob Marley & the Wailers — Three Little Birds (1977) and One Love (in major, I–IV–V progressions; check the keys).
• Common mistakes: a skank that is too 'full' on the downbeats.

Minor pentatonic

• Formula: 1 b3 4 5 b7 — 1½W W W 1½W W (semitones 3 2 2 3 2)
• Example on A: A C D E G
• Characteristic note: no half steps: b3 and b7 without the 2 and b6, an open, 'can't go wrong' sound, ideal for riffs and hooks
• Use in the genre: the language of basslines and vocal melodies: 1 b3 4 5 b7 with rests and long notes.
• Real-world example: Aston Barrett's lines in the Wailers' songs: pentatonic phrases of 1–2 bars with octave leaps.
• Common mistakes: filling every sixteenth note: the reggae bass breathes.

Mixolydian

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 — W W H W W H W (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 1 2)
• Example on D: D E F# G A B C
• Characteristic note: the b7 over a major foundation: an 'earthy', festive major, with no leading tone
• Diatonic triads: D (I) – Em (ii) – F#dim (iii°) – G (IV) – Am (v) – Bm (vi) – C (VII)
• Seventh chords: D7 (I7) – Em7 (ii7) – F#m7b5 (iiiø7) – Gmaj7 (IVmaj7) – Am7 (v7) – Bm7 (vi7) – Cmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: songs on I–bVII (D–C), common in reggae closer to rock and pop.
• Real-world example: many reggae-pop and British reggae tracks (UB40, Steel Pulse) use the bVII.
• Common mistakes: using the leading tone C#.

How to choose among the genre's scales

• Spiritual roots → Dorian.
• Melancholic roots → Aeolian.
• Lovers rock and reggae pop → major.
• Bass and vocals → minor pentatonic (or major in sunny songs).

Harmony

Harmonic function

Cyclical and slow: vamps of 1–2 chords (i–IV, i–VII, I–IV) or 4-chord loops (I–vi–IV–V, i–VII–VI–VII), 1 or 2 bars per chord. No strong cadence; the tension is rhythmic and dynamic (dub).

The offbeat

The harmony is heard on the offbeat: guitar and piano play short, staccato chords on 2 and 4 (in half-time counting) or on the '&' of every beat; the 'bubble' organ plays staccato sixteenth-note figures.

Voicing

• Guitar skank: close triads on the high strings (G3–G5 range), downstroke, muted immediately.
• Piano: chords in the middle register on the offbeat, sometimes with the octave.
• Organ: 3–4 note chords, bubble alternating hands.
• Horns: trumpet, trombone and sax in thirds/sixths or in unison.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

The one drop

One bar of 4/4 at ~70–76 BPM (often felt in half time): kick and rim together on 3 (step 9 of 16), no kick on 1: the 'emptiness' on 1 and the 'drop' on 3 create the typical suspension. Hi-hat in eighth or sixteenth notes with 25–35% swing and an opening on the offbeat of 4.

The skank

Guitar and piano on the offbeat: on 2 and 4 (in half time) or on the '&' of every quarter note; the bubble organ fills in the sixteenth notes.

Drum variations

• Rockers (Sly Dunbar, mid-'70s): kick on every quarter note, rim on 3 or on 2 and 4, more driving.
• Steppers: 'hammering' quarter-note kick with rim on 3, typical of dub and UK roots.
• Nyabinghi: Rasta drums (funde, kete, bass) with a 'heartbeat' pulse.

Microtiming

Everything is 'relaxed' and slightly behind the beat; the bass often lands a hair after the kick.

Drums

Kick

• Only on 3 (step 9) in the one drop, together with the rim; no kick on 1. Deep, soft sound, tuned low, with little tail; velocity 100.
• In rockers: kick on 1, 2, 3, 4; in steppers: quarter notes with rim on 3.

Rim / snare

• Cross-stick (rim) on 3 with the kick; the actual snare is used in fills and in some variations on 2 and 4 (rockers).
• Sound: a dry, 'woody' rim, often tuned high (timbales-like on Sly Dunbar's records).

Hi-hat

• Eighth or sixteenth notes with 25–35% swing, accents on the offbeat, opening on the offbeat of 4 (step 15); 'triplet' hi-hat figures (Carlton Barrett).
• Alternating velocity (strong–weak).

Percussion

• Nyabinghi (funde, kete), shaker, bells, timbales in fills; in roots sometimes congas.

Interaction with bass and vocals

• The drums leave room for the bass: kick and bass often don't coincide (the bass plays on 1 where the kick is silent).
• The vocal leans on the offbeat and on the gaps.

By section

• Intro: tom fill or drums alone with the bass.
• Verse: one drop with a light hi-hat.
• Chorus: more open hi-hat, horns, backing vocals.
• Dub/break: strip out instruments, echo on the rim, reverb on the kick.

Fills and transitions

Tom fills (often triplets) on the last bar of the phrase, flams on the snare, a cymbal hit with echo.

Typical mistakes

• Kick on 1: that's not a one drop.
• Straight hi-hats without swing.
• Rim too loud or too reverberant.
• Fills that are too frequent.

Bass

• Sound: big, dark electric bass (highs rolled off, flatwound strings or palm mutes, closed tone), mainly in the E1–E2 range; very loud in the mix.
• Role: it is the main instrument: melodic lines of 1–2 bars that become the identity of the riddim; also used as percussion.
• Rhythm: often enters on 1 (where the kick is silent) or on the 'and' of 1, with rests on 3 (where the drop is); alternating long and staccato notes.
• Notes: pentatonic and Dorian/Aeolian, octave leaps, thirds; few notes and lots of space.
• Example over Am–D: A1 (1) – C2 (1a) – E2 (2&) rest | D2 (1) – F#1 (2) – A1 (2&) rest.

Harmonic instruments

• Skank guitar: staccato chords on the offbeat, clean, bright sound, often with a little spring reverb; a second guitar (muted picking) doubles the bass an octave higher (a rocksteady legacy of Lynn Taitt).
• Bubble/shuffle organ: Hammond with staccato sixteenth-note figures alternating hands.
• Piano on the offbeat.
• Horns (trumpet, trombone, sax): answers and riffs.
• Melodica (Augustus Pablo) in roots and dub.

Melody and vocals

Vocals

• Singing in patois and Jamaican English, middle register, warm and slightly nasal timbre, relaxed phrasing behind the beat; spiritual, social, political and love lyrics.
• Pentatonic melodies with long notes, 'soul' melismas.

Backing vocals

• Vocal trio in harmony (the I Threes with Bob Marley: Rita Marley, Marcia Griffiths, Judy Mowatt), thirds and sixths, answers to the lead voice.

Effects

Tape echo (1/4 or dotted 1/8 delay with 30–40% feedback), spring reverb, plate.

Instruments

• Drums (one drop, rockers, steppers), nyabinghi, percussion
• Electric bass
• Skank guitar, muted lead guitar
• Hammond organ, piano, melodica, clavinet
• Trumpet, trombone, sax
• Lead vocal, vocal trio

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• B-3 V — Bubble organ: Drawbar 888000000 or 008800000 for the bubble; slow Leslie; staccato figures.
• Piano V — Piano on the offbeat: Bright upright piano, little reverb.
• Clavinet V — Clavinet skank: Short, percussive clavinet as an alternative to the guitar skank.
• Mini V — Synth bass / sub: To reinforce the bass with a sine sub in modern reggae.
• Wurli V — Electric piano: Soft chords in lovers rock.
• Mellotron V — Flutes and strings: Colors for intros and more 'psychedelic' tracks (Black Ark).

Song structure

Typical form (≈ 3:00–4:30)

Arrangement

Few harmonic changes; the arrangement works by subtraction (dub) and by bringing in horns and backing vocals. Many singles had the instrumental 'version' on the B-side.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Big, warm, dominant bass, dry and defined drums, a clear skank, soft organ, the vocal up front with echo. The classic sound is warm and analog (tape, spring reverb, Jamaican studio mixing desks). References: Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977), Burning Spear — Marcus Garvey (1975), Steel Pulse — Handsworth Revolution (1978), Chronixx — Chronology (2017) for the modern sound.

Kick

• EQ: HP 35 Hz, +2 dB at 60–80 Hz, −3 dB at 300–400 Hz, slight click at 2 kHz; light compression (3:1, 2 dB). Mono.

Rim

• HP 300–400 Hz, +2/+3 dB at 1–2 kHz, control at 4 kHz; short spring/plate at 10%; tape echo on selected hits.

Hi-hat

• HP 400 Hz, −2 dB at 6–8 kHz if it whistles; panning +20/+30.

Toms and percussion

• Toms: HP 60 Hz, panning ±30; nyabinghi HP 50 Hz, panning ±40.

Bass

• EQ: HP 30 Hz, emphasis at 50–90 Hz (+2/+3 dB), LP 1.5–3 kHz (closed sound), −2 dB at 200–250 Hz if 'boomy'.
• Opto compression 4:1 (4–6 dB), attack 20–30 ms, release 150 ms: the bass must be even and powerful; light tube saturation.
• Mono, louder than the kick (2–4 dB perceived difference).

Skank (guitar/piano)

• HP 300 Hz, +2 dB at 2–3 kHz, fast compression (6:1, attack 1 ms) for the 'chicky' character; short spring reverb at 10%; panning ±30.

Bubble organ

• HP 150 Hz, −2 dB at 500 Hz; panned opposite the skank (±30–40); Leslie for width.

Horns

• HP 120 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz, presence at 2–3 kHz; plate 1.5 s at 15%; panning ±20–40.

Vocals

• EQ: HP 90 Hz, −2 dB at 300 Hz, +2/+3 dB at 3 kHz; FET compression 4:1 (4 dB) + opto 2 dB; de-esser.
• Space: tape echo at 1/4 or dotted 1/8 (feedback 30–40%, filtered HP 400 Hz / LP 4 kHz) at 10–15%, spring or plate 1–1.5 s.

Backing vocals

HP 150 Hz, panning ±40–60, longer reverb, −4 dB.

FX (dub)

Echo throws on rim and vocal, 'slammed' spring, automated high-pass filters on the mix.

Buses and groups

Rhythm section bus (drums + bass) with light glue; no pumping.

Sidechain

Rarely needed: kick and bass play at different points; maybe 1–2 dB.

Master

• Chain: EQ (possibly +1 dB at 60 Hz and −1 dB at 3 kHz for warmth) → compression 2:1 (1–2 dB) → limiter −1 dBTP.
• Target: −11/−9 LUFS integrated (roots), −9/−8 for modern reggae; true peak ≤ −1 dBTP; PLR 9–12 dB.

Common mistakes

• Bass with too many highs and little body.
• Skank too loud or too reverberant.
• Over-compressed 'rock' drums.
• Vocals without echo or with long modern reverbs.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977)
• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Is This Love (1978)
• Burning Spear — Marcus Garvey (1975)
• Steel Pulse — Handsworth Revolution (1978)
• Chronixx — Skankin' Sweet (2017)

Reference listening

• Toots and the Maytals — Do the Reggay (1968)
• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Stir It Up (1973)
• Burning Spear — Marcus Garvey (1975)
• Junior Murvin — Police and Thieves (1976)
• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Exodus (1977)
• Bob Marley & the Wailers — Three Little Birds (1977)
• Steel Pulse — Handsworth Revolution (1978)
• Chronixx — Skankin' Sweet (2017)