Definition
Passacaglia and chaconne are forms of continuous variation over an ostinato bass (ground bass) or a repeated harmonic scheme, usually 4 or 8 bars long, in triple meter and at a moderate or slow tempo. They began as dances and as guitar accompaniment formulas in late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century Spain and Italy (the chacona came from the New World; the pasacalle was an instrumental ritornello played “in the street”), and in the Baroque they became large instrumental forms.
Passacaglia or chaconne?
Theorists (and the composers themselves) do not agree. A frequent teaching distinction, to be taken with caution:
| Passacaglia | Chaconne | |
|---|---|---|
| Fixed element | a theme in the bass (ostinato melody) | a harmonic scheme (the bass can vary) |
| Character | often in the minor, solemn | often more dance-like, major or minor |
| Example | Bach, Passacaglia BWV 582 | Bach, Chaconne BWV 1004 |
In seventeenth-century France (Lully, Couperin) the two words indicated dances that differed in tempo and character more than in technique.
Typical basses
- Descending tetrachord (lament bass): in the minor 1–7–6–5 (A–G–F–E in A minor), also in the chromatic version A–G♯–G–F♯–F–E.
- Seventeenth-century chaconne bass: in the major 1–5–6–5 (or 1–5–6–4–5) over a rhythm with an accent on the second beat.
- Pachelbel bass: D–A–B–F♯–G–D–G–A (descends by fourth and rises by step).
- Folia and Romanesca: repeated harmonic schemes (see the dedicated entry).
Masterpieces to study
- Purcell, “When I am laid in earth” (Dido's Lament, Dido and Aeneas, 1689): ostinato bass of 5 bars in G minor that descends chromatically G–F♯–F–E–E♭–D and cadences. The vocal melody is built to go out of phase with the irregular length of the bass.
- Bach, Passacaglia and Fugue in C minor BWV 582 (organ): 8-bar theme in the pedals, followed by 20 variations and a fugue that uses the first half of the theme as its subject.
- Bach, Chaconne from the Partita No. 2 in D minor BWV 1004 (solo violin): 256 bars built on 4-bar phrases, with a long central section in D major. The polyphony is entirely “latent” in a single instrument.
- Pachelbel, Canon in D: technically a canon for three violins over a 2-bar ground repeated 28 times.
- Brahms, Symphony No. 4, finale (1885): 8 bars (theme derived from a bass in a Bach cantata, BWV 150), 30 variations and coda.
- Webern, Passacaglia, Op. 1 (1908); Britten, Passacaglia from Peter Grimes (1945); Shostakovich, Passacaglia from the Violin Concerto No. 1.
How to build one
- Choose a bass of 4 or 8 bars with a cadence at the end (so that it can be repeated).
- Write variations in groups of two or three with the same figuration (eighth notes, triplets, sixteenth notes) to create arches of energy.
- Plan a change of mode (minor → major) in the middle, as in Bach's Chaconne.
- Make the bass migrate to an upper voice for a few variations (as Brahms does).
- Use offsets between melody and bass (melody phrases that don't coincide with the repetitions of the bass, like Purcell) to avoid monotony.
Modern application
A 4-bar bass loop repeated throughout the piece, over which the melody, upper chords and arrangement change, is a passacaglia: it is the principle behind many sample-based hip hop tracks, deep house and countless film scores (Hans Zimmer's ostinatos). The descending lament bass can be recognized, for example, in the intro of Led Zeppelin's “Stairway to Heaven” (descending chromatic line from A) and in many ballads.
Exercise for a producer
Program a lament bass in A minor (A–G–F–E, one bar per note, 3/4 or slow 4/4). Build 8 variations over it without ever changing the bass: (1) pad only, (2) melody in quarter notes, (3) arpeggio in eighth notes, (4) version in A major with the chromatic bass A–G♯–G–F♯–F–E, (5) half-time drums, (6) strings in counterpoint, (7) full climax, (8) bass and voice only. Listen to how the form grows without modulating.
Related
Theme and variations, Pedal point and ostinato, Folia, Romanesca and passamezzo, The Pachelbel Canon progression, Inner voices and hidden lines.