Definition
Besides tempo and dynamics, the composer indicates the character with which a piece or passage should be performed. These expression terms are almost always in Italian, the international language of music since the 17th century; from the 19th century indications in German, French, and English also appear. They are written in italics, below the staff (for instruments) or above it (for voices and in modern scores).
The most common terms
| Term | Practical meaning |
|---|---|
| dolce | soft sound, without harshness |
| cantabile | legato, vocal phrasing, the melody “sings” |
| espressivo | with intensity, freedom of dynamics and agogics |
| con brio | with vigor and energy |
| con fuoco | with passion and impetuosity |
| maestoso | solemn, broad, unhurried |
| grazioso | light and elegant |
| scherzando / giocoso | playful, brilliant, often staccato |
| agitato | restless, agitated |
| appassionato | with intense passion |
| sostenuto | full, sustained sound (sometimes also slightly held back in tempo) |
| leggero (leggiero) | light sound, articulated |
| marcato | every note accented and clearly articulated |
| pesante | heavy, with weight on every note |
| misterioso | subdued, enigmatic |
| mesto / lamentoso | sad, like a lament |
| tranquillo | calm |
| sotto voce | in a half voice, intimate |
| morendo / smorzando / perdendosi | dying away, in sound and often in tempo |
The modifiers
- molto, assai: very (Allegro assai = very fast).
- poco, un poco: a little; poco a poco: gradually.
- più / meno: more / less (più mosso, meno mosso).
- non troppo, ma non troppo: not too much (Allegro ma non troppo).
- sempre: always, for the whole passage; subito: suddenly.
- quasi: almost, as if; simile: continue in the same way.
- con / senza: with / without (con sordina, senza pedale).
Terms in other languages
- German: langsam (slow), lebhaft (lively), mit Ausdruck (with expression), innig (intimate, heartfelt), zart (delicate). Schumann, Mahler, and Brahms use them often.
- French: très modéré, cédez (slow down), retenu (held back), en dehors (brought out), expressif. Debussy and Ravel make refined use of them.
- English: in modern scores and film music (driving, with intensity, laid back).
Practical rules
- The character term is not a “suggestion”: it changes the choice of articulation, dynamics, and even tempo.
- Write the marking where the character begins and repeat it in the parts of all the instruments involved.
- Do not pile up contradictory terms: dolce e marcato needs justifying (for example a soft but clearly articulated melody).
- Sempre saves you from having to repeat a marking at every bar.
Common mistakes
- Always translating sostenuto as “slower”: in many contexts it mainly indicates fullness of sound.
- Using espressivo everywhere: it loses meaning. Reserve it for moments when the line needs to stand out.
- Confusing meno mosso (slower) and più mosso (faster).
Examples
- Beethoven, Fifth Symphony and “Eroica” Symphony, first movement: Allegro con brio.
- Beethoven, Sonata op. 27 no. 2, first movement: Adagio sostenuto, with the instruction to play the whole piece with the utmost delicacy and without dampers (that is, with the pedal).
- Chopin, Etude op. 10 no. 3: Lento ma non troppo.
- Brahms, Second Symphony, first movement: Allegro non troppo.
- Debussy, Clair de lune: Andante très expressif.
- Satie, Gnossiennes: poetic and ironic indications in French in place of the traditional terms.
How to use it in composition
- Choose the character first, then the tempo: Allegro grazioso and Allegro con fuoco can have the same metronome marking but sound opposite.
- When you write for studio musicians, a clear term (cantabile, marcato, leggero) communicates more than ten articulation marks.
- In virtual orchestra parts in the DAW, translate the term into concrete choices: sampled articulation, velocity curve, amount of vibrato.
Exercise
- Play the same melody dolce, marcato, and agitato without changing the tempo: note what changes.
- Write the character markings for the three sections of a piece of your own (verse, chorus, bridge).
- Translate into Italian five German or French markings found in a score.
Connections
Agogics and tempo markings; Dynamics; Articulations; Performance markings in the score; Reading the orchestral score.