Klezmer

History and character

Klezmer is the instrumental tradition of the Ashkenazi Jews of central and eastern Europe (Poland, Ukraine, Belarus, Lithuania, Romania, Moldova, Hungary), played above all at weddings and celebrations by professional musicians called klezmorim (from the Hebrew k'lei zemer, “instruments of song”). It blends Jewish religious melodies (the synagogue modes, the chanting of the khazn, Hasidic nigunim), dances and music of neighboring peoples (Romanian, Ukrainian, Polish, Roma, Ottoman-Greek) and its own language of ornamentation that imitates a voice crying and laughing. The traditional wedding had a precise order: music for the bride (bazetsn di la kale, with the badkhn, the singer-jester), processions, group dances, listening pieces at the table.

The first bands were made up of violin (the main instrument until the nineteenth century), tsimbl (cimbalom), cello or bass, flute; from the mid-nineteenth century the clarinet took on the solo role and brass, drum and, later, the accordion were added. With emigration to the United States (1880–1924) klezmer became professionalized in the recordings of the 1910s–'20s: the clarinetists Naftule Brandwein and Dave Tarras became stars, the orchestras of Abe Schwartz and Harry Kandel recorded bulgars and freylekhs; then the genre was absorbed by Yiddish theater, jazz and dance music, while in Europe the Shoah destroyed the communities that played it.

From the '70s the revival in the USA (The Klezmorim, Kapelye, Andy Statman, Zev Feldman, the Klezmer Conservatory Band, then The Klezmatics with Frank London and Alicia Svigals) and in Europe (Giora Feidman, an Argentine-Israeli clarinetist very active in Germany) brought the music back to the public; schools such as KlezKanp and Yiddish Summer Weimar followed, along with fusions with jazz, punk, electronica (John Zorn and Radical Jewish Culture, Daniel Kahn, Socalled, Amsterdam Klezmer Band, Oi Va Voi), and soundtracks of films and musicals (Fiddler on the Roof, 1964 on Broadway; Itzhak Perlman with In the Fiddler's House, 1995). In Italy: the Moni Ovadia Stage Orchestra, Klezroym.

Scales and keys

Klezmer uses the shtayger (modes) derived from Ashkenazi liturgy, with names taken from the prayers in which they are used. Roman numerals in minor are relative to natural minor (with alterations indicated).

Freygish (Ahava Rabboh)

• Formula 1 b2 3 4 5 b6 b7 — in D: D Eb F# G A Bb C (= Phrygian dominant, hijaz).
• Characteristic note: augmented second Eb–F#: the klezmer sound par excellence (joy and lament together).
• Chords: I (D) iv (Gm) vii (Cm) bII (Eb); the tonic is always major.
• Use: freylekhs, bulgar, khosidl, doina.
• Common mistake: harmonizing the I as the dominant of G minor and “resolving” to Gm: in freygish, D major is home.

Mi sheberakh (“Ukrainian Dorian,” altered Dorian)

• Formula 1 2 b3 #4 5 6 b7 — in D: D E F G# A B C.
• Characteristic note: #4 (G#) with the augmented second F–G#: intense yearning; it often slips into freygish on the fourth (G).
• Chords: i (Dm), II7 (E7), iv (Gm, borrowed), V7 (A7); often i–II7–i over a drone.
• Use: doinas, slow pieces, some bulgars.

Adonoy molokh (“Jewish major”)

• Formula 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7 — in D: D E F# G A B C (= Mixolydian).
• Characteristic note: b7 (C), with frequent shifts toward the minor.
• Chords: I (D) IV (G) bVII (C) v (Am).
• Use: festive pieces, sher, some freylekhs.

Mogen ovos (minor)

• Formula 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7 — in D: D E F G A Bb C (= natural minor), with the leading tone raised in the cadences.
• Chords: i (Dm) iv (Gm) V7 (A7) VI (Bb) VII (C).
• Use: greeting and farewell melodies (mazltov, dobriden), terkisher, waltzes.

Major and harmonic minor

Used in pieces of more “European” origin (waltzes, polkas, marches) and in the terkisher.

Typical modulations

A piece in freygish on D often moves to the region of G minor (its “fourth,” where freygish appears as V of G minor) or to C minor; pieces in Mi sheberakh move to freygish on the fourth.

Ornamentation tied to the modes

Krekhts (sob: a choked note with a glissando up or down), kvetsh (pressure and crying on the note), tshok (laugh: rapid staccatos), trills, mordents, grace notes, glissandi; they are as much a part of the “mode” as the scale.

How to choose

Freygish for festive dance and pathos (the most used), Mi sheberakh for lament and the doina, Adonoy molokh for bright celebration, Mogen ovos for greeting pieces and waltzes.

Harmony

Accompaniment harmony

• Klezmer is melodic: the soloist (clarinet, violin) carries the melody; the “sekund” (second violin) and later the accordion, piano, tsimbl, guitar or banjo provide upbeat chords; the bass (upright bass, tuba, cello) plays root and fifth on the beats.
• Freygish: major I as tonic, minor iv (Gm in D), minor vii (Cm) from the b7; vii–I or iv–I cadence; many pieces have the B section in the region of iv (Gm).
• Mi sheberakh: minor i with major II7 (E7 in D) and i–iv; often a drone.
• Mogen ovos/minor: European i–iv–V7–i.
• Harmonic rhythm: one chord per bar (2/4) or per two bars; repeated chords from the sekund with an “oom-pah” or syncopated rhythm (3+3+2 in the bulgar).
• Revival and fusion: jazz harmonies (sevenths, ninths), contemporary dissonances (Klezmatics, John Zorn), bolder modulations.

Voicing

Close chords in the middle register (sekund with double and triple stops), accordion with alternating basses and chords, tuba on the root; in American bands of the '20s, brass with repeated chords.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

The klezmer dances

• Freylekhs (“happy”): 2/4 or 4/4, circle dance, regular oom-pah rhythm (bass on the beats, chords on the upbeats).
• Bulgar: 2/4 with syncopated 3+3+2 accompaniment (in eight eighth notes: accents on 1, 4 and 7 — the tresillo); the most popular dance in the USA of the early twentieth century (from Moldavian and Romanian models).
• Sher: 2/4, a contradance for couples and quadrilles.
• Khosidl: moderate 2/4, a dignified and “heavy” Hasidic dance.
• Hora / zhok: “limping” 3/8 (actually a slow 3/8 with the second beat shifted and lengthened: long–short accompaniment), of Romanian origin; slow circle dance.
• Doina: unmeasured, semi-improvised listening piece (of Romanian origin), often followed by a fast piece (hora or freylekhs).
• Terkisher (in “Turkish” style): 4/4 with a habanera/tango-type rhythm (dotted eighth–sixteenth–two eighths).
• Waltz and polka: from the European dances.
• Feel: the upbeat eighth notes are often slightly anticipated and accented; the melody anticipates or lags (rubato) over a regular accompaniment; final acceleration in the dance suites.

Drums

Percussion in klezmer

• Poyk: bass drum with a cymbal mounted on top (the drummer strikes the head with a mallet and the cymbal with a stick or a beater): the classic percussion of klezmer bands, both in Europe and in America. Role: “oom” on the strong beat, cymbal on the upbeat or on the beats, rolls and accents in the endings.
• Snare drum and drum kit in the American orchestras of the '20s (drums with brushes or sticks, woodblock, cymbals).
• Tsimbl also used percussively (repeated chords).

How the rhythm works

• Freylekhs: poyk on the beats (1 and 2 in 2/4), cymbal on the upbeats: oom-pah.
• Bulgar: poyk and bass on the 3+3+2 syncopation (eighth notes 1, 4, 7), cymbal on the upbeat eighth notes.
• Hora/zhok: low hit on the first beat and accent shifted to the third eighth.
• Doina: no percussion (at most a very long tsimbl roll).
• Fills and endings: drum or poyk rolls before the return of the A section, final hit in unison with the last chord (often the klezmer cadential formula “tam-ta-tam”).

Revival and fusion

Jazz drums (brushes, ride), funk and rock grooves (Klezmatics), electronica (Socalled): keep the upbeat accent and the 3+3+2 syncopation recognizable.

Typical mistakes

Rock drums that crush the 2/4; bulgar played with a straight accompaniment (without the 3+3+2); poyk and bass not aligned; percussion under the doina.

Bass

• Upright bass (often played with the bow in traditional bands, or plucked), cello, tuba in American and brass bands: root on the strong beat, fifth on the second, small chromatic passages at the endings.
• Bulgar: bass on the 3+3+2 syncopation (first, fourth and seventh eighth notes), sometimes alternating root and fifth.
• Hora: long bass on the first beat and a short note on the third eighth.
• Freygish: the bass underlines the change between major I and minor iv (D → G).
• Mix: woody, defined bass, not bloated; in modern productions, soft electric bass.

Harmonic instruments

• Sekund (second violin): chords in double and triple stops repeated on the upbeat, the “oom-pah” of the strings.
• Tsimbl (Jewish cimbalom, smaller than the Hungarian one): arpeggiated chords, tremolos, countermelodies; a historic klezmer instrument, revived in the revival.
• Accordion (from the late nineteenth century, central in the revival): alternating basses and chords, melodies.
• Piano (American recordings of the '20s), guitar and banjo (American orchestras), brass (cornet, trombone) with repeated chords.
• Voicing: close chords in the middle register, thirds and sixths from the sekund, diminished seventh chords as a passage toward iv.

Melody and vocals

• Clarinet (in C or Bb, often the clarinet in C or Eb in traditional bands): the soloist par excellence from the 1850s on; technique of krekhts (sob), glissandi, trills, “laughing” staccatos, ringing high register and dark low register; masters: Naftule Brandwein (wild and highly ornamented style), Dave Tarras (elegant and fluid style), Giora Feidman, Andy Statman, David Krakauer.
• Violin: the historic soloist, with vocal ornamentation, double stops, slides and harmonics (Alicia Svigals, Itzhak Perlman in the In the Fiddler's House project, 1995).
• Flute, trumpet/cornet, trombone in the bands; panpipes and tsimbl as occasional soloists.
• Voice: the Yiddish song accompanied by the band: theatrical, expressive voice, with synagogue-style ornaments (khazones); the badkhn who improvises verses.
• Melodic structure: phrases of 4 and 8 bars, repetitions with ornamental variations; in the doina long free phrases over a drone or over held chords.
• Imitation of the voice: the aim of klezmer ornamentation is to make the instrument “cry and laugh” like a human voice.

Instruments

Clarinet (in C, Bb, Eb), violin (prim and sekund), tsimbl (cimbalom), accordion, upright bass, cello, tuba, cornet/trumpet, trombone, flute, panpipes (in Romanian traditions), poyk (bass drum with cymbal), snare drum, drum kit, piano, guitar, banjo, voice (Yiddish singing, badkhn); in the revival and in fusions sax, electric bass, electric guitar, electronics.

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Piano V — Piano of the American recordings: Oom-pah accompaniment and upbeat chords in the style of the klezmer orchestras of the '20s and of Yiddish theater; slightly “honky” upright for atmosphere.
• Augmented Strings — Strings for Yiddish film and theater: String pads under doinas and Yiddish songs in cinematic contexts; keep them distant and soft.
• VOX Continental V — Organ for klezmer-rock fusion: Combo organ for klezmer-rock and punk arrangements ('60s style or modern).
• Wurli V — Electric piano for klezmer-jazz: Electric piano for fusions with jazz and soul (Klezmatics, Krakauer).

Song structure

Form of dance pieces

• Sections of 8 or 16 bars (A, B, C), each repeated (AABBCC…), often with the B or C section in the region of iv (G minor for a freygish on D) or in a different mode; the whole piece is taken again 2–3 times with a final acceleration.
• Suite: doina (free, slow) → hora (slow 3/8) → freylekhs or bulgar (fast): the typical path from listening to dancing.
• Ending: klezmer cadential formula (e.g. a descending scale of the mode ending with “tam-ta-tam” on the tonic, everyone in unison).

Doina

Free form: introduction over a drone, improvised phrases from the clarinet or violin separated by held chords from the band (which changes chord on a cue from the soloist), virtuosic cadences; then a measured piece begins.

Yiddish song

Verse–chorus with instrumental introduction and clarinet interludes.

Arrangement

The soloist states the melody and repeats it more ornamented; the other instruments trade the melody in the repeat (violin ↔ clarinet ↔ accordion); the sekund and the bass keep the oom-pah; in the last round everyone plays in unison and accelerates.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

The soloist who speaks: clarinet or violin in the foreground with every ornament audible (krekhts, glissandi, trills), sekund/accordion/tsimbl creating a clear rhythmic accompaniment, bass and poyk keeping the oom-pah; wedding-hall or club space (0.8–1.4 s). References: the historic recordings of Naftule Brandwein and Dave Tarras ('20s, mono), The Klezmatics (Rhythm and Jews, 1990), Andy Statman, Itzhak Perlman (In the Fiddler's House, 1995), David Krakauer.

Clarinet

• Condenser or ribbon microphone at 30–60 cm, pointed between the middle keys and the bell (not just the bell: the sound comes out of the tone holes).
• EQ: high-pass 120–150 Hz; −2 dB at 1–2 kHz if nasal; −2/−3 dB at 3–4 kHz if the high register is shrill (the Eb clarinet is very ringing); +1 dB at 8 kHz for air.
• Compression: opto 2–3:1, 2–4 dB (krekhts have fast dynamics: don't squash them).
• Space: plate 1.2–1.6 s + room; delay absent or minimal.
• Panning: center.

Violin (prim) and sekund

• Prim: microphone at 50–80 cm above the instrument; high-pass 180 Hz; −2 dB at 2.5–3.5 kHz if shrill; center or L/R 10–20 if it shares the role with the clarinet.
• Sekund: high-pass 200 Hz, −2 dB at 500 Hz, compression 3:1 to even out the repeated chords; L/R 30–50.

Tsimbl and accordion

• Tsimbl: stereo pair above the instrument at 60–80 cm; high-pass 80–100 Hz; +1 dB at 5–8 kHz; wide stereo.
• Accordion: two microphones (right hand at 20–30 cm, basses at 20–30 cm); −2 dB at 400–600 Hz; compression 2:1; L/R 20–40 opposite the sekund.

Bass, tuba and poyk

• Upright bass: microphone at 20–30 cm + DI; high-pass 40 Hz; −2 dB at 250 Hz; compression 3–4:1; center.
• Tuba: microphone at 50 cm above the bell; high-pass 30 Hz; −2 dB at 200–300 Hz.
• Poyk: microphone on the head at 30 cm (low 60–90 Hz) + overhead for the cymbal; −3 dB at 300–500 Hz; cymbal high-pass 300 Hz.

Voice (Yiddish singing)

Condenser at 20–30 cm; high-pass 90 Hz; presence +1/+2 dB at 3 kHz; opto compression 3:1; plate 1.5 s.

Buses and groups

Soloists, accompaniment (sekund, accordion, tsimbl, piano), bass/tuba, percussion, voice; shared hall reverb.

Sidechain

No (in electronic fusions: kick → bass).

Master

• Acoustic: −15/−12 LUFS integrated, true peak −1 dBTP, LRA 6–12 LU (the doina must breathe).
• Fusion and klezmer-punk: −10/−8 LUFS.

Common mistakes

• Compressed, shrill clarinet (it loses the krekhts and the crying).
• Accompaniment louder than the soloist.
• Bulgar with a straight rhythm or a muddled syncopation in the mix (bass and poyk not aligned).
• Long reverb on the doina that erases the pauses.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Naftule Brandwein — Der Heyser Bulgar ('20s).
• Dave Tarras — recordings of the '20s–'40s.
• The Klezmatics — Rhythm and Jews (album, 1990).
• Itzhak Perlman — In the Fiddler's House (1995).
• David Krakauer — recordings with Klezmer Madness! ('90s–2000s).

Reference listening

• Naftule Brandwein — Der Heyser Bulgar (anni '20)
• Naftule Brandwein — Fun Tashlikh (anni '20)
• Dave Tarras — registrazioni per Columbia e Victor (anni '20–'40)
• Abe Schwartz's Orchestra — Di Grine Kuzine (anni '20)
• Harry Kandel's Orchestra — registrazioni Victor (anni '20)
• Tradizionale — Hava Nagila
• Giora Feidman — registrazioni (anni '70–'80)
• The Klezmorim — Streets of Gold (1978)
• The Klezmatics — Rhythm and Jews (1990)
• Andy Statman — registrazioni klezmer (anni '70–'80)
• Itzhak Perlman — In the Fiddler's House (1995)
• Daniel Kahn & The Painted Bird — registrazioni (anni 2000–2010)