Bernstein's three ambiguities
In the fourth Norton lecture (“The Delights and Dangers of Ambiguity,” Harvard 1973) Bernstein distinguishes:
- Phonological (pitch and key): a chord or a melody admits more than one reading. In C, Am7 and C6 have the same notes (A C E G): the bass decides. A G#°7 can resolve to A minor, C, Eb or F#.
- Syntactic (meter and phrase): the accent seems to fall in one place and then shifts. Hemiola, metric displacement, half-time versus double-time.
- Semantic (meaning): the same music evokes different emotions depending on the context.
According to Bernstein, ambiguity is what makes music expressive, as long as a reference (the key) remains to deviate from; too much ambiguity becomes confusion.
Expectation
Listeners continually predict what will happen. Techniques for playing with expectations:
- Delay the resolution: sus4, appoggiaturas, dominant pedal before the drop.
- Deceive: deceptive cadence G7 → Am instead of C.
- Displace: a hook that starts an eighth note early, an accent on the offbeat.
- Deny and then grant: removing the drums for two bars before the chorus.
Surprise works only if a clear pattern has been established first.
Example in A minor / C major
The loop Am – F – C – G is ambiguous between A minor and C major: the verse can seem to be in A minor (melody on A) and the chorus in C (melody on C), without changing a single chord.
Real-world example
Bernstein analyzes the prelude to Wagner's “Tristan und Isolde,” with the famous chord (F B D# G#) that can be read in several ways and never fully resolves. In pop, “Get Lucky” by Daft Punk leaves the center suspended between B minor and D major throughout the song.