Progressive rock

History and character

Progressive rock emerged between the mid and late 1960s in Britain and the United States out of the psychedelic bands. It combines rock instrumentation with the compositional techniques of jazz, folk and classical music, with poetic or fantastical lyrics and a strong focus on studio production. At first it was called "progressive pop"; its forerunners are Pet Sounds (1966), Sgt. Pepper's (1967) and Days of Future Passed by the Moody Blues (1967, with the London Festival Orchestra).

The bands that define it: King Crimson (In the Court of the Crimson King, 1969), Yes, Genesis, Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Pink Floyd (The Dark Side of the Moon, 1973; The Wall, 1979), Jethro Tull, Van der Graaf Generator, Gentle Giant, Renaissance, Mike Oldfield (Tubular Bells, 1973), the Canterbury scene (Soft Machine, Caravan) and, in Italy, PFM, Banco del Mutuo Soccorso, Le Orme and Area; in Canada, Rush. Hallmarks: long songs and multi-movement suites, extended solos, virtuosity, odd time signatures, jazz- and classical-derived harmony, and keyboards in the lead role (Hammond, Mellotron, Minimoog).

In the mid-1970s many bands broke up or changed lineups and punk undermined their popularity; some turned toward arena rock or pop (Genesis, Yes with Owner of a Lonely Heart). Then came the neo-prog of the 1980s (Marillion, IQ, Pendragon), the third wave of the 1990s (The Flower Kings, Spock's Beard), modern prog (Porcupine Tree, Steven Wilson) and the fusion with metal (progressive metal).

Scales and keys

Diatonic modes (Dorian, Lydian, Mixolydian, Aeolian)

• Dorian: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 (W H W W W H W). In E: E F# G A B C# D. Characteristic note: major 6 (C#) → major IV (A).
• Lydian: 1 2 3 #4 5 6 7 (W W W H W W H). In D: D E F# G# A B C#. Characteristic note: #4 (G#) → major II (E).
• Mixolydian: 1 2 3 4 5 6 b7. In A: A B C# D E F# G. Characteristic note: b7 (G).
• Aeolian: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7. In A: A B C D E F G. Characteristic note: b6 (F).
• Lydian chords in D: I D, II E, iii F#m, #iv° G#dim, V A, vi Bm, vii C#m.
• Use: prog changes mode from section to section: Dorian for jazz passages (Pink Floyd — Breathe in E Dorian: Em7–A), Lydian for suspended and pastoral sections (Yes, Genesis), Aeolian for epic parts.
• Real-world example: Pink Floyd — Breathe (Em–A, i–IV Dorian); Yes — Roundabout (E minor with Dorian colors); Genesis — Firth of Fifth (piano in shifting meters).

Harmonic minor and melodic minor

• Harmonic minor: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 7. In A: A B C D E F G#. Characteristic note: the raised 7 and the augmented second F–G#.
• Melodic minor (ascending): 1 2 b3 4 5 6 7. In A: A B C D E F# G#. Characteristic note: the combination of major 6 and major 7 over a minor chord (Am(maj7)).
• Harmonic minor chords in A: i Am, ii° Bdim, III+ C+, iv Dm, V E, VI F, vii° G#dim.
• Use: "classical" passages (Emerson, Lake & Palmer, Rick Wakeman), V–i cadences, counterpoint, neoclassical arpeggios.

Hexatonic (whole-tone) scale

• Formula: 1 2 3 #4 #5 b7 — whole tones only. In C: C D E F# G# Bb.
• Characteristic note: no half steps: a suspended, dreamlike sound; it produces augmented chords (C+, D+).
• Use: transitions, "spacey" intros, keyboard sections (King Crimson, Genesis).

Pentatonic and blues (rock solos)

• Formula: 1 b3 4 5 b7. In D: D F G A C.
• Use: David Gilmour solos (Comfortably Numb, Money in D minor pentatonic/Dorian); Steve Howe and Alex Lifeson mix pentatonic and modes.

Chromaticism and octatonic (diminished)

• Half step–whole step octatonic: 1 b2 #2 3 #4 5 6 b7. In C: C Db D# E F# G A Bb.
• Use: King Crimson (Red, Larks' Tongues in Aspic), dissonant and symmetrical passages; a forerunner of prog metal.

How to choose

• Jazz/funky section: Dorian. Suspended section: Lydian or whole-tone. Epic: Aeolian or harmonic minor. Rock solo: pentatonic. Tension/dissonance: octatonic or chromaticism. A prog piece often uses all of these scales in different sections: decide the mode for each section and mark the change with the characteristic note.

Harmony

Function

Prog uses classical tonality (V–I, secondary dominants, modulations, counterpoint), modality (Dorian vamps, Lydian pedals) and jazz chords (maj7, m9, 11, slash chords). The harmony is sectional: each movement of the suite has its own tonal center and modulations link the movements.

Pedals and ostinatos

• Bass pedals under changing chords (slash chords: D/E, C/D, Bb/C), keyboard ostinatos in odd meters.

Modulations

• By third (C → Eb), by whole step, to the relative key; use of pivot chords and direct modulations between sections.

Voicings

• Fourth-based (quartal) chords, slash chords, sus2/sus4, maj7#11, wide keyboard voicings; acoustic guitar with open chords and classical arpeggios (Steve Hackett, Steve Howe).
• Hammond in close position with full chords; Mellotron with long chords.

Counterpoint

• Independent bass, guitar and keyboard lines (Gentle Giant, Yes): the harmony arises from the meeting of the voices.

Harmonic rhythm

• Highly variable: long pedals (Pink Floyd) and fast changes (Yes, ELP).

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Prog uses odd time signatures and meter changes as a language: 7/8 (Pink Floyd's Money is in 7/4), 5/4, 7/4, 9/8, 11/8, 13/8, alternations of 4/4 and 3/4, rubato and free-time sections, polyrhythms (1980s King Crimson: Discipline). Typical 7/8 groupings: 2+2+3 or 3+2+2. The instrumental sections have a rock or fusion groove; the slow sections are often in 6/8 or 12/8. The key is to make the odd meter "sound" natural: clear accents on the groups and a phrase that keeps returning.

Drums

Role

Prog drumming is compositional: it plays figures written in unison with the riffs, follows the meter changes and orchestrates with toms and percussion. Models: Bill Bruford (Yes, King Crimson: jazz, high-pitched snare, polyrhythms), Phil Collins (Genesis), Carl Palmer (ELP), Neil Peart (Rush: enormous kit, written fills), Nick Mason (Pink Floyd, essential), Ian Mosley.

Kick

• Follows the groups of the odd meter: in 7/8 (2+2+3) kick on the first beat of each group (steps 1, 5, 9 on a 14-sixteenth grid).
• Occasional double bass drum (Peart, Palmer).

Snare

• Backbeat shifted according to the meter (e.g. 7/8: snare on the second group and on the last eighth note); ghost notes and jazz rolls.

Hi-hat, ride and cymbals

• Hi-hat in eighth notes marking the grid, ride for jazz sections, bells, gongs, china and splash cymbals.

Percussion

• Timpani, glockenspiel, tubular bells, roto-toms (Peart, Palmer), orchestral percussion.

Interaction

• Unisons with bass and keyboards on complex figures; the drums must make clear where the bar begins (crash or strong kick on 1).

Sections

• Each movement has its own groove: rubato intro with cymbals and timpani, rock section in 4/4, odd-meter section, slow section in 6/8, grand finale with orchestral fills.

Fills

• Long, composed tom fills (Peart in Tom Sawyer), fills in triplets and quintuplets, fills that cross the barline.

Sounds

• Big kit (many toms, cymbals, roto-toms), dry 1970s sound or with room; gated reverbs in 1980s neo-prog.

Typical mistakes

• Odd meters played without accents (you can't tell where 1 is); fills so frequent they cover the composition.

Bass

Sound

Rickenbacker 4001 with a pick (Chris Squire, Geddy Lee: bright, upper-mid and distorted sound), Precision (Roger Waters), Jazz Bass; Moog Taurus bass pedals for synth basses (Genesis, Rush).

Role

• Melodic and virtuosic counterpoint (Squire in Roundabout, Geddy Lee), unisons with the keyboard, odd-meter ostinatos (Money: bass riff in 7/4).

Notes

• Modal lines, arpeggios, chromaticism, pedals under slash chords; wide range up to the 15th–17th fret.

Relationship with the kick

It follows the groups of the meter with the kick on the accents; in melodic sections it is free.

Examples

• Yes — Roundabout; Pink Floyd — Money; Rush — YYZ.

Harmonic instruments

Keyboards (the lead instruments)

• Hammond with Leslie and distortion (Keith Emerson, Jon Lord), Mellotron (King Crimson, Genesis, Moody Blues), Minimoog for solos (Rick Wakeman, Emerson), classical piano, harpsichord, pipe organ, ARP, string machine (Solina), later Prophet-5 and Oberheim.
• Layering: several keyboards at once (Wakeman with dozens of instruments on stage).

Guitars

• Clean and crunch electrics (Steve Howe with a Gibson ES-175, David Gilmour with a Strat and delay, Steve Hackett with tapping and volume swells, Robert Fripp with extremely long sustain), classical and 12-string acoustic guitars, arpeggios.
• Layering: doubled acoustic guitar, electrics with stereo delay; long solos with tempo-synced delay (Gilmour).

Voicings

• Extended and slash chords, classical arpeggios, counterpoint between keyboard and guitar.

Melody and vocals

Vocals

• High, lyrical voices (Jon Anderson, Geddy Lee), theatrical (Peter Gabriel, Fish), warm (Greg Lake, David Gilmour), with clear diction for long, narrative lyrics.
• Modal melodies, long phrases, wide intervals, recurring themes (leitmotifs) across the sections of a suite.

Backing vocals

• Complex 3–4 part harmonies (Yes, Gentle Giant with vocal counterpoint), "cathedral" choirs with Mellotron.

Effects

• Hall and plate reverb, delay, Leslie on the voice, filtered and spoken voices (Pink Floyd).

Instruments

• Keyboards: Hammond, Mellotron, Minimoog, piano, harpsichord, pipe organ, polyphonic synths.
• Electric and acoustic guitars (6-string, 12-string, classical).
• Electric bass (Rickenbacker), Moog Taurus pedals.
• Extended drum kit, orchestral percussion (timpani, glockenspiel, tubular bells, gong).
• Voice and backing vocals.
• Flute (Jethro Tull), violin, sax (Pink Floyd), orchestra.

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Mellotron V — Strings, flutes, choirs: The sound of In the Court of the Crimson King and of Genesis: strings (MkII Strings), flute, male choirs; long chords, slight wow.
• Mini V — Lead synth: Wakeman/Emerson-style solos: three saw/square oscillators, filter with envelope and moderate resonance, glide, wide pitch bend, modulation with the wheel.
• B-3 V — Hammond organ: Emerson and Lord: full drawbars, percussion, fast Leslie, high drive for aggressive passages.
• Piano V — Classical piano: Introductions and classical passages (Firth of Fifth): grand piano, wide dynamics.
• Solina V — String machine: 1970s orchestral pads (Pink Floyd's Wish You Were Here, Genesis).
• Prophet-5 V — Polyphonic pads and leads: Late-1970s prog and neo-prog: wide pads and brass.
• ARP 2600 V — Effects and sequences: Textures, sound effects and experiments (Pink Floyd, Genesis): filtered noise, sample & hold.

Song structure

Forms

• Long song (6–12 minutes) in sections: introduction, theme A, instrumental development, theme B, reprise, grand finale.
• Suite (15–25 minutes) in movements with their own titles (Close to the Edge, Supper's Ready), recurring themes that return transformed.
• Concept album: a single story spread across several songs (The Wall, The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway).

Example form (about 9:00)

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Clarity, depth and width: every instrument must be readable even in dense sections; wide dynamics between sections. References: Pink Floyd — The Dark Side of the Moon (1973, Alan Parsons engineering), Yes — Close to the Edge (1972), Rush — Moving Pictures (1981), Steven Wilson — modern remixes of the classics.

Kick

• EQ: HP 30 Hz, +2 dB at 60–80 Hz, −3 dB at 350 Hz, +2 dB at 3 kHz; compression 3:1, 2–3 dB.

Snare

• EQ: +2 dB at 200 Hz, +2 dB at 5 kHz; compression 3–4 dB; plate 1.5 s. High-pitched "jazz" snare (Bruford): +3 dB at 1 kHz and 6 kHz.

Toms and percussion

• Toms panned like the kit (L60 → R60), hall reverb for the timpani and bells.
• Drum bus: light compression (2 dB) to preserve dynamics.

Bass

• Rickenbacker: HP 35 Hz, +2 dB at 100 Hz, +3 dB at 1.5–2.5 kHz (the "voice" of the pick), light distortion; 1176 compression 4 dB. Moog Taurus: clean sub below 80 Hz, sidechain from the electric bass so they don't overlap.

Keyboards

• Hammond L60/R60 (stereo Leslie), Mellotron L40/R40 with hall reverb, Minimoog in the center with stereo delay, stereo piano L50/R50.
• EQ: a different HP for each keyboard (Hammond 60 Hz, Mellotron 150 Hz, synth lead 200 Hz); cut 250–400 Hz in the pads to leave room for the guitars.

Guitars

• Doubled acoustics L70/R70, HP 120 Hz, +2 dB at 10 kHz.
• Solo electric (Gilmour): center, tempo-synced stereo delay (e.g. quarter note on the left, dotted eighth on the right), plate or long hall; compression 3–4 dB for sustain.

Lead vocal

• Chain: EQ (HP 90 Hz, +2 dB at 3 kHz) → 1176 + LA-2A compression (5–6 dB total) → de-esser.
• Space: hall 2–3 s with 50–80 ms pre-delay, tempo-synced delay; automation for the sections.

Backing vocals

• Wide-panned harmonies, long hall.

FX

• Hall, plate, tempo-synced delay, sound effects (clocks, cash register, spoken voices in Dark Side), automated panning (quadraphonic techniques reduced to stereo).

Buses and groups

• Keyboard bus, guitar bus, vocal bus; minimal compression on the mix to let it breathe.

Sidechain

• Rare; useful between synth pedals and electric bass.

Master

• Target: −14/−11 LUFS integrated (wide dynamics are part of the genre), true peak −1 dBTP; short-term −9/−8 in the finales.

Common mistakes

• Compressing everything: the slow and loud sections must have real differences.
• Too many keyboards in the same octave; losing the bass behind the pedals.

Reference tracks for the mix

• King Crimson — 21st Century Schizoid Man (1969); Yes — Roundabout (1971); Pink Floyd — Money (1973); Genesis — Firth of Fifth (1973); Rush — Tom Sawyer (1981); Porcupine Tree — Trains (2002).

Reference listening

• The Moody Blues — Nights in White Satin (1967)
• King Crimson — 21st Century Schizoid Man (1969)
• Yes — Roundabout (1971)
• Emerson, Lake & Palmer — Lucky Man (1970)
• Genesis — Firth of Fifth (1973)
• Pink Floyd — Money (1973)
• Mike Oldfield — Tubular Bells (1973)
• Premiata Forneria Marconi — Impressioni di settembre (1971)
• Rush — Tom Sawyer (1981)
• Marillion — Kayleigh (1985)