Afrobeats

History and character

'Afrobeats' (with the 's') is the umbrella term for West African pop music and its diaspora, which developed across Nigeria, Ghana and the United Kingdom in the 2000s–2010s. It blends hiplife, highlife, jùjú, fuji, azonto, naija beats and palm-wine music with hip hop, R&B, dancehall and house. It should be distinguished from Fela Kuti's afrobeat (1960s–'70s, big band, jazz-funk and politics), which remains a constant reference point (Burna Boy and Wizkid sample Fela). The name is credited to London DJ Abrantee, who added an 's' to 'Afrobeat' to introduce the sound to a British audience (his show on Choice FM launched in April 2011).

Pioneers: 2Face Idibia, D'banj (“Oliver Twist”, No. 9 in the UK in 2012), P-Square (“Personally”, 2011), Wande Coal, Fuse ODG (“Azonto”, “Antenna”, 2012). In the 2010s Wizkid (“One Dance” with Drake, 2016, for years the most-streamed song on Spotify; “Essence” with Tems, 2021, on the Billboard Hot 100), Davido (“Fall”, the first Nigerian afrobeats track to pass 200 million views), Burna Boy (African Giant, 2019; Twice as Tall, 2020; I Told Them, 2023, the first album by an African artist to reach No. 1 in the UK; the first afrobeats artist to perform at the Grammys, 2024), Tiwa Savage, Mr Eazi (who calls his style 'Banku music'), Tems (Grammy for Best African Music Performance 2025), Rema (“Calm Down”, No. 3 on the Hot 100), CKay (“Love Nwantiti”), Fireboy DML (“Peru” with Ed Sheeran), Asake, Ayra Starr, Olamide, and South Africa's Tyla (the first winner of the Grammy category introduced in 2024) all broke through. Producers: Sarz (house influences), Juls, P2J, Kel-P, London, Rexxie, Pheelz, Masterkraft.

Subgenres and offshoots: afroswing (UK, since 2014), alté (Nigerian alternative), afropiano (with South African amapiano, early 2020s), afro-adura (2022, spiritual lyrics in Yoruba), azonto, pon pon, afrosoca, afro trap. Characteristics: driving drums (often the protagonist), 4/4 with 3-2/2-3 clave figures, house-like momentum, relaxed and melodic vocals in African English, pidgin and local languages, use of samples.

Scales and keys

Major pentatonic

• Formula: 1 2 3 5 6 — T T 1½T T 1½T (semitones 2 2 3 2 3)
• Example on Bb: Bb C D F G
• Characteristic note: no semitones: 3 and 6 without 4 and 7, a sunny, African/folk sound, always consonant
• Use in the genre: the scale of vocal melodies and hooks: 1 2 3 5 6, short repeated phrases, light melismas; the absence of semitones gives the sunny, relaxed sound.
• Real-world example: Wizkid feat. Drake & Kyla — One Dance (2016); many Wizkid and Davido melodies use 5 notes (check the key of each individual track).
• Common mistakes: melodies that linger on the 4 or the 7 on strong beats: they sound 'Western'.

Major (Ionian)

• Formula: 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 — T T S T T T S (semitones 2 2 1 2 2 2 1)
• Example on F: F G A Bb C D E
• Characteristic note: the 7 (leading tone) and the major 3: brightness and a strong V–I resolution
• Diatonic triads: F (I) – Gm (ii) – Am (iii) – Bb (IV) – C (V) – Dm (vi) – Edim (vii°)
• Seventh chords: Fmaj7 (Imaj7) – Gm7 (ii7) – Am7 (iii7) – Bbmaj7 (IVmaj7) – C7 (V7) – Dm7 (vi7) – Em7b5 (viiø7)
• Use in the genre: 4-chord major loops (I–vi–IV–V, I–IV–vi–V) played by piano, plucks, guitar; harmonies in thirds in the backing vocals.
• Real-world example: Davido — Fall (2017) and many hits built on bright major loops (check the key).
• Common mistakes: overly 'classical' cadences: the loop has to keep turning.

Natural minor (Aeolian)

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 b6 b7 — T S T T S T T (semitones 2 1 2 2 1 2 2)
• Example on A: A B C D E F G
• Characteristic note: the b6: melancholy; with the b7 (no leading tone) the minor stays 'circular'
• Diatonic triads: Am (i) – Bdim (ii°) – C (III) – Dm (iv) – Em (v) – F (VI) – G (VII)
• Seventh chords: Am7 (i7) – Bm7b5 (iiø7) – Cmaj7 (IIImaj7) – Dm7 (iv7) – Em7 (v7) – Fmaj7 (VImaj7) – G7 (VII7)
• Use in the genre: late-night afrobeats and afro-R&B: i–VI–III–VII, i–iv; soft moods with dark pads.
• Real-world example: Burna Boy — Last Last (2022), built on a minor-key Toni Braxton sample; Wizkid feat. Tems — Essence (2020) with a minor/soft mood (check the keys).
• Common mistakes: using the leading tone: it makes the track sound like 'Western pop'.

Dorian

• Formula: 1 2 b3 4 5 6 b7 — T S T T T S T (semitones 2 1 2 2 2 1 2)
• Example on C: C D Eb F G A Bb
• Characteristic note: the major 6 over a minor base: an 'open' minor, less sad, which gives a major IV
• Diatonic triads: Cm (i) – Dm (ii) – Eb (III) – F (IV) – Gm (v) – Adim (vi°) – Bb (VII)
• Seventh chords: Cm7 (i7) – Dm7 (ii7) – Ebmaj7 (IIImaj7) – F7 (IV7) – Gm7 (v7) – Am7b5 (viø7) – Bbmaj7 (VIImaj7)
• Use in the genre: for the more 'groovy' and afropiano tracks: i7–IV7, m9 chords, jazz pianos.
• Real-world example: afropiano productions with ninth chords and a major IV.
• Common mistakes: adding the b6 in the pad voicings.

Minor pentatonic

• Formula: 1 b3 4 5 b7 — 1½T T T 1½T T (semitones 3 2 2 3 2)
• Example on A: A C D E G
• Characteristic note: no semitones: b3 and b7 without 2 and b6, an open sound that 'can't go wrong', ideal for riffs and hooks
• Use in the genre: hooks of the more street-oriented tracks (Olamide, Asake), rap and backing vocals; often with fuji/Yoruba inflections.
• Real-world example: Asake — Terminator / Sungba (2022): hooks and choral backing vocals on just a few notes (check the keys).
• Common mistakes: using it over a major loop without adjusting the b3.

How to choose among the genre's scales

• Sunny, danceable hit → major pentatonic over a major loop.
• Afro-R&B, late-night → Aeolian.
• Afropiano, jazzy groove → Dorian with ninth chords.
• Street, choral → minor pentatonic.

Harmony

Harmonic function

Loops of 2–4 chords repeated throughout the track, one bar each (at ~105 BPM), with no cadences: I–vi–IV–V, vi–IV–I–V, i–VI–III–VII, i7–IV7. The harmony is soft and 'floating', often with seventh and ninth chords.

Elements

• Guitar ostinatos or plucks (a highlife legacy) that define the loop.
• Pads and piano with open voicings (add9, m7, maj7).
• Samples of R&B, highlife or Fela tracks as the harmonic foundation.
• Bridge with a change of 1–2 chords or with a stop.

Voicings

Mid-high register for guitars and plucks (C4–C6), pads between C3 and C5, nothing below C3 except bass/sub.

Typical progressions

Rhythm and groove

Feel

4/4 at 95–116 BPM with 10–20% swing on the sixteenth notes (shaker, rim, hi-hat), a relaxed but propulsive groove with house-like 'momentum'. Many figures recall the 3-2 or 2-3 clave.

Accents

• Syncopated kick (tresillo-like: 1, 1a, 2&, 3&), clap on 2 and 4, rim/percussion in a 3-2 figure (e.g. 2, 2a, 3&, 4&a), shaker with accents on the 2nd and 4th sixteenth note.
• The vocal leans on the offbeats and often anticipates the downbeat.

Microtiming

Rim and percussion slightly late (+5/+15 ms), shaker with alternating velocity; the groove is 'human'.

Variants

• Afropiano: amapiano log drum and shaker over afrobeats melodies (108–115).
• Afro-dancehall: dancehall kick and snare.
• Afro-house-pop: four-on-the-floor kick (115–120).

Drums

Kick

• Basic figure 1, 1a, 2&, 3& (steps 1, 4, 7, 11 of 16; see r-afrobeats), sometimes with a ghost note in the second bar; velocity 95–115. Round sound with a short sub (decay 150–250 ms).

Clap / snare

• Clap on 2 and 4 (steps 5, 13), often a layer of clap + snap or rim; high velocity.
• In the verses sometimes only on 4 or replaced by a rim.

Rim / percussion (the 'signature')

• Rim/stick in a clave figure (e.g. steps 3, 6, 11, 15, 16), conga/tom with syncopated figures (steps 7, 10, 15 high, 13 low), sampled talking drum, cowbell/agogô and shekere.
• Variable velocities: accents 100, ghost notes 50–60.

Shaker and hi-hat

• Shaker in sixteenth notes with the figure x.xxx.xxx.xxx.xx (accents on the offbeat), swing 15–20%; closed hi-hat on the offbeat (steps 3, 7, 11, 15) or absent.

Interaction with bass and vocals

• The bass follows the kick with short notes, leaving room for the vocal; the vocal floats on top with syncopated phrases.

By section

• Intro: percussion and guitar/pluck, producer tag (“Sarz on the beat”, “Kel-P vibes”).
• Verse: kick and percussion, light clap.
• Hook: all elements, clap layers, backing vocals.
• Bridge: kick drops out, only percussion and vocal.

Fills and transitions

Tom/conga rolls, shaker 'swishes', half-bar stops, reverses.

Typical mistakes

• Four-on-the-floor kick (it turns into house).
• Quantizing without swing.
• Too many percussion layers in the same range (1–5 kHz).
• Clap too loud and 'trap'.

Bass

• Sound: soft synth bass (sine/triangle with few harmonics) or sampled electric bass, short sub; register E1–E2.
• Rhythm: short notes following the kick (1, 1a, 2&) with rests; sometimes a short melodic line of 1–2 bars.
• Notes: roots of the loop, octaves, fifths; glides are rare.
• Relationship with the kick: short kick and soft bass; light sidechain (2–3 dB) or complementary EQ.
• Afropiano: log drum in place of the bass.

Harmonic instruments

• Clean electric or acoustic guitar with highlife ostinatos (thirds and sixths), offbeat arpeggios.
• Piano/Rhodes and pads with open voicings.
• Synthetic plucks and marimbas for the ostinatos.
• Sampled or real horns (sax, trumpet) for 'Fela' colors.
• Sampled kalimba and traditional instruments.

Melody and vocals

Lead vocal

• Mid register, soft and relaxed timbre, behind-the-beat phrasing, pentatonic melodies, short repeated phrases; a mix of English, pidgin, Yoruba, Igbo, Twi.
• Light Auto-Tune (retune 20–40 ms) for a polished sound.

Backing vocals and ad-libs

• Doubles and harmonies in thirds on the hook; 'call-and-response' backing vocals; ad-libs and tags ('Starboy', 'OBO', artist signatures).
• Female background vocals on the R&B tracks.

Effects

Soft plate, 1/4 or dotted-1/8 delay, light chorus on the doubles.

Instruments

• Drum machine, sampled percussion (conga, talking drum, shekere, cowbell, agogô), shaker
• Synth bass, sub, log drum (afropiano)
• Electric/acoustic guitar, piano, Rhodes, pads, plucks, marimba, kalimba
• Horns (sax, trumpet)
• Vocals with light Auto-Tune, backing vocals, ad-libs

Drum patterns

Synths and sounds

• Jun-6 V — Pads and plucks: Warm pads with chorus; plucks with 300 ms decay for the ostinatos.
• Stage-73 V — Rhodes: Soft seventh and ninth chords.
• DX7 V — FM marimbas and kalimbas: FM marimba/kalimba for sixteenth-note ostinatos.
• Mini V — Synth bass: Triangle with LP at 400 Hz and short decay for a soft bass.
• Prophet-5 V — Soft pads and leads: Lead with short glide for countermelodies.
• Augmented Strings — Strings in afro-R&B ballads: Legato string pads.

Song structure

Typical form (≈ 2:30–3:30)

Arrangement

The track often starts with the hook; variation comes from the percussion (adding/removing layers) and the vocals; short tracks (2:30–3:00) designed for streaming.

Mixing and mastering

Sonic goal

Clean, warm groove: defined, well-distributed percussion, round (not aggressive) kick and bass, a soft vocal up front, 'silky' highs. References: Wizkid feat. Tems — Essence, Burna Boy — Last Last, Rema & Selena Gomez — Calm Down, Davido — Fall.

Kick

• HP 30 Hz, +2 dB at 55–65 Hz, −3 dB at 250–350 Hz, +1/+2 dB at 3 kHz; compression 3:1 (2 dB). Mono.

Clap / rim

• Clap: HP 200 Hz, +2 dB at 1–2 kHz, +1 dB at 8 kHz; fast 4:1 compression; plate 0.8–1 s at 10%.
• Rim: HP 300 Hz, +2 dB at 2–4 kHz; panning ±20.

Percussion (conga, talking drum, shekere, cowbell)

• HP 100–300 Hz, transient shaper, +2 dB at 3–5 kHz for the attack; panning ±30–60 (conga right, talking drum left, shekere wide).
• A shared short room to glue them together.

Shaker / hi-hat

• HP 500–800 Hz, −2 dB at 6–8 kHz if they sizzle; panning ±30; volume automation in the hooks.

Bass / sub

• HP 25–30 Hz, fundamental 45–70 Hz, LP 1–2 kHz for a soft sound, light saturation; mono; sidechain from the kick 2–3 dB.

Guitars, piano, pads, plucks

• Guitar: HP 150 Hz, −2 dB at 300 Hz, +2 dB at 3–5 kHz; dotted-1/8 delay; panning ±40.
• Piano/Rhodes: HP 100 Hz, −2 dB at 400 Hz; stereo ±50.
• Pad: HP 250 Hz, 100% width, dynamic EQ from the vocal.
• Filtered 2 s hall reverb.

Lead vocal

• Chain: tuning (retune 20–40 ms) → EQ (HP 90 Hz, −2 dB at 250–350 Hz, +2 dB at 3–5 kHz, air +2 dB at 12 kHz) → FET 4:1 (3–4 dB) → opto (2 dB) → de-esser → light saturation.
• Space: plate 1–1.5 s at 12–15%, 1/4 delay at 10% with 20% feedback.

Backing vocals and ad-libs

• Doubles ±70–100, −6 dB; harmonies with a longer hall; ad-libs panned.

Buses and groups

Drum bus glue 2:1 (1–2 dB), percussion bus, music bus, vocal bus.

Sidechain

Kick → bass (2–3 dB), kick → pad (2 dB).

Master

• Chain: EQ → bus compression 2:1 (1–2 dB) → light saturation → limiter −1 dBTP.
• Target: −9/−7 LUFS integrated, hook short-term −7/−6; true peak ≤ −1 dBTP; PLR 8–10 dB.

Common mistakes

• Kick and bass too aggressive (trap style): afrobeats is soft.
• Percussion all in the center and all at the same volume.
• Vocal too bright and 'harsh' at 3–5 kHz.
• Shaker dominating the highs.

Reference tracks for the mix

• Wizkid feat. Drake & Kyla — One Dance (2016)
• Davido — Fall (2017)
• Wizkid feat. Tems — Essence (2020)
• Burna Boy — Last Last (2022)
• Rema & Selena Gomez — Calm Down (2022)

Reference listening

• P-Square — Personally (2011)
• D'banj — Oliver Twist (2012)
• Drake feat. Wizkid & Kyla — One Dance (2016)
• Davido — Fall (2017)
• Burna Boy — Ye (2018)
• Wizkid feat. Tems — Essence (2020)
• CKay — Love Nwantiti (2019)
• Burna Boy — Last Last (2022)
• Rema & Selena Gomez — Calm Down (2022)